Categories
  Encyclosphere.org ENCYCLOREADER
  supported by EncyclosphereKSF

Early European Farmers

From Wikipedia - Reading time: 19 min

Early European Farmers (EEF)[a] were a group of the Anatolian Neolithic Farmers (ANF) who brought agriculture to Europe and Northwest Africa. The Anatolian Neolithic Farmers were an ancestral component, first identified in farmers from Anatolia (also known as Asia Minor) in the Neolithic, and outside in Europe and Northwest Africa, they also existed in Iranian Plateau, South Caucasus, Mesopotamia and Levant. Although the spread of agriculture from the Middle East to Europe has long been recognised through archaeology, it is only recent advances in archaeogenetics that have confirmed that this spread was strongly correlated with a migration of these farmers, and was not just a cultural exchange.

The earliest farmers in Anatolia derived most (80–90%) of their ancestry from the region's local hunter-gatherers, with minor Levantine and Caucasus-related ancestry.[1] The Early European Farmers moved into Europe from Anatolia through Southeast Europe from around 7,000 BC, gradually spread north and westwards, and reached Northwest Africa via the Iberian Peninsula. Genetic studies have confirmed that the later Farmers of Europe generally have also a minor contribution from Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHGs), with significant regional variation. European farmer and hunter-gatherer populations coexisted and traded in some locales, although evidence suggests that the relationship was not always peaceful. Over the course of the next 4,000 years or so, Europe was transformed into agricultural communities, with WHGs being effectively replaced across Europe. During the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age, people who had Western Steppe Herder (WSH) ancestry moved into Europe and mingled with the EEF population; these WSH, originating from the Yamnaya culture of the Pontic steppe of Eastern Europe, probably spoke Indo-European languages. EEF ancestry is common in modern European and Northwest African populations, with EEF ancestry highest in Southern Europeans, especially Sardinians and Basque people.

A distinct group of the Anatolian Neolithic Farmers spread into the east of Anatolia, and left a considerable genetic legacy in Iranian Plateau, South Caucasus, Levant (during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) and Mesopotamia. They also have a minor role in the ethnogenesis of WSHs of Yamnaya culture.

The ANF ancestry is found in substantial levels in contemporary European, West Asian and North African populations, and also found in Central and South Asian populations (through Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex and Corded Ware Culture) with lower levels.

Overview

[edit]
See also: Neolithic Revolution
Spread of farming from Southwest Asia to Europe and Northwest Africa, between 9600 and 4000 BC

Populations of the Anatolian Neolithic derived most of their ancestry from the Anatolian hunter-gatherers (AHG), with a minor geneflow from Iranian/Caucasus and Levantine related sources, suggesting that agriculture was adopted in situ by these hunter-gatherers and not spread by demic diffusion into the region.[1] Ancestors of AHGs and EEFs are believed to have split off from Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHGs) between 45kya to 26kya during the Last Glacial Maximum, and to have split from Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers (CHGs) between 25kya to 14kya.[2]

Genetic studies demonstrate that the introduction of farming to Europe in the 7th millennium BC was associated with a mass migration of people from Northwest Anatolia to Southeast Europe,[3] which resulted in the replacement of almost all (c. 98%) of the local Balkan hunter-gatherer gene pool with ancestry from Anatolian farmers.[4][5][6] In the Balkans, the EEFs appear to have divided into two wings, who expanded further west into Europe along the Danube (Linear Pottery culture) or the western Mediterranean (Cardial Ware). Large parts of Northern Europe and Eastern Europe nevertheless remained unsettled by EEFs. During the Middle Neolithic there was a largely male-driven resurgence of WHG ancestry among many EEF-derived communities, leading to increasing frequencies of the hunter-gatherer paternal haplogroups among them.

Around 7,500 years ago, EEFs originating from the Iberian Peninsula migrated into Northwest Africa, bringing farming to the region. They were a key component in the neolithization process of the Maghreb, and intermixed with the local forager communities.[7]

The builders of Stonehenge were descendants of Neolithic farmers who migrated to the area about 6,000 years ago

The farmers of the Neolithic British Isles had entered the region through a mass migration c. 4,000 BC. They carried about 80% EEF and 20% WHG ancestry and were found to be closely related to Neolithic peoples of Iberia, which implies that they were descended from agriculturalists who had moved westwards from the Balkans along the Mediterranean coast. The arrival of farming populations led to the almost complete replacement of the native WHGs of the British Isles, who did not experience a genetic resurgence in the succeeding centuries.[8] More than 90% of Britain's Neolithic gene pool was replaced with the arrival of the Bell Beaker people around 2,500 BC,[9] who had approximately 50% WSH ancestry.[10]

The individuals buried in Neolithic Ireland were found to be largely of EEF ancestry (with WHG admixture), and were closely related to peoples of Neolithic Britain and Iberia. It was found that the Neolithic peoples of Ireland had almost entirely replaced the native Irish Hunter-Gatherers through a rapid maritime colonization.[11]

The people of the Funnelbeaker culture of southern Scandinavia were largely of EEF descent, with slight hunter-gatherer admixture, suggesting that the emergence of the Neolithic in Scandinavia was a result of human migration from the south. The Funnelbeakers were found to be genetically highly different from people of the neighboring hunter-gatherer Pitted Ware culture; the latter carried no EEF admixture and were instead genetically similar to other European hunter-gatherers.[12]

The most common paternal haplogroup among EEFs was haplogroup G2a, while haplogroups E1b1 and R1b have also been found.[13] Their maternal haplogroups consisted mainly of West Eurasian lineages including haplogroups H2, I, and T2, however significant numbers of central European farmers belonged to East Asian maternal lineage N9a, which is almost non-existent in modern Europeans, but common in East Asia.[13][14][15] However, the high frequency of the East Asian mitochondrial haplogroup N9a in Neolithic cultures of the Carpathian Basin was disputed by another study.[16]

Neolithic cultures in Europe in c. 4500–4000 BC

During the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age, the EEF-derived cultures of Europe were overwhelmed by successive migrations of Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) from the Pontic–Caspian steppe, who carried roughly equal amounts of Eastern Hunter-Gatherer (EHG) and Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer (CHG) ancestries. These migrations led to EEF paternal DNA lineages in Europe being almost entirely replaced with WSH-derived paternal DNA (mainly subclades of EHG-derived R1b and R1a). EEF maternal DNA (mainly haplogroup N) was also substantially replaced, being supplanted by steppe lineages,[17][18] suggesting the migrations involved both males and females from the steppe.[19][20]

A 2017 study found that Bronze Age European with steppe ancestry had elevated EEF ancestry on the X chromosome, suggesting a sex bias, in which Steppe ancestry was inherited by more male than female ancestors.[21] However, this study's results could not be replicated in a follow-up study by Iosif Lazaridis and David Reich, suggesting that the authors had mis-measured the admixture proportions of their sample.[22]

EEF ancestry remains widespread throughout Europe, ranging from about 60% near the Mediterranean Sea (with a peak of 65% in the island of Sardinia) and diminishing northwards to about 10% in northern Scandinavia.[23] According to more recent studies however, the highest EEF ancestry found in modern Europeans ranges from 67% to over 80% in modern Sardinians, Italians, and Iberians, with the lowest EEF ancestry found in modern Europeans ranging around 35-40% in modern Finns, Lithuanians and Latvians.[24][25] EEF ancestry is also prominent in living Northwest Africans like Moroccans and Algerians.[26]

Physical appearance and allele frequency

[edit]
Reconstruction of a Neolithic farmer from Europe, Science Museum in Trento

European hunter-gatherers were much taller than EEFs, and the replacement of European hunter-gatherers by EEFs resulted in a dramatic decrease in genetic height throughout Europe. During the later phases of the Neolithic, height increased among European farmers, probably due to increasing admixture with hunter-gatherers. During the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age, further reductions of EEF ancestry in Europe due to migrations of peoples with steppe-related ancestry is associated with further increases in height.[27] High frequencies of EEF ancestry in Southern Europe might partly explain the shortness of Southern Europeans as compared to Northern Europeans, who carry increased levels of steppe-related ancestry.[28]

The Early European Farmers are believed to have been mostly dark haired and dark eyed, and light skinned,[29][30] with the derived SLC24A5 being fixed in the Anatolia Neolithic,[31] although a genetic study of Ötzi the Iceman, a Chalcolithic mummy of EEF ancestry, found that he had a darker skin tone than contemporary southern Europeans.[32] A study on different EEF remains throughout Europe concluded that they mostly had an "intermediate to light skin complexion".[33] A 2024 paper found that risk alleles for mood-related phenotypes are enriched in the ancestry of Neolithic farmers.[34]

Subsistence

[edit]

EEFs and their Anatolian forebears kept taurine cattle,[35] pigs,[36] sheep, and goats[37] as livestock, and planted cereal crops like wheat.[38]

Social organisation

[edit]
Poulnabrone dolmen, the Burren, County Clare, Ireland

Genetic analysis of individuals found in Neolithic tombs suggests that least some EEF peoples were patrilineal (tracing descent through the male line), with the tombs' occupants mostly consisting of the male descendants of a single male common ancestor and their children, as well as their wives, who were genetically unrelated to their husbands, suggesting female exogamy.[39][40]

A Neolithic royal buried at Newgrange was found to be highly inbred and possibly the product of an incestual relationship, suggesting that this community was highly socially stratified and dominated by a line of powerful "god-kings".[11]

In terms of overall size, some settlements of the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture, such as Talianki (with a population of around 15,000) in western Ukraine, were as large as the city-states of Sumer in the Fertile Crescent, and these Eastern European settlements predate the Sumerian cities by more than half of a millennium.[41] Research indicates that the settlements had a three-level settlement hierarchy, with the possibility of state-level societies. An excavated mega-structures suggests the presence of public buildings for meetings or ceremonies.[42]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Krause, Johannes; Jeong, Choongwon; Haak, Wolfgang; Posth, Cosimo; Stockhammer, Philipp W.; Mustafaoğlu, Gökhan; Fairbairn, Andrew; Bianco, Raffaela A.; Julia Gresky (19 March 2019). "Late Pleistocene human genome suggests a local origin for the first farmers of central Anatolia". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 1218. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.1218F. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09209-7. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6425003. PMID 30890703.
  2. ^ Marchi, Nina; Winkelbach, Laura; Schulz, Ilektra; Brami, Maxime; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Blöcher, Jens; Reyna-Blanco, Carlos S.; Diekmann, Yoan; Thiéry, Alexandre; Kapopoulou, Adamandia; Link, Vivian; Piuz, Valérie; Kreutzer, Susanne; Figarska, Sylwia M.; Ganiatsou, Elissavet (May 2022). "The genomic origins of the world's first farmers". Cell. 185 (11): 1842–1859.e18. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 9166250. PMID 35561686.
  3. ^ Lazaridis, Iosif; Nadel, Dani; Rollefson, Gary; Merrett, Deborah C.; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Fernandes, Daniel; Novak, Mario; Gamarra, Beatriz; Sirak, Kendra; Connell, Sarah; Stewardson, Kristin; Harney, Eadaoin; Fu, Qiaomei; Gonzalez-Fortes, Gloria (8 August 2016). "Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East". Nature. 536 (7617): 419–424. Bibcode:2016Natur.536..419L. doi:10.1038/nature19310. PMC 5003663. PMID 27459054.
  4. ^ Mathieson et al. 2018.
  5. ^ Curry, Andrew (August 2019). "The first Europeans weren't who you might think". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021.
  6. ^ Spinney, Laura (1 July 2020). "When the First Farmers Arrived in Europe, Inequality Evolved". Scientific American.
  7. ^ Simões, Luciana G.; Günther, Torsten; Martínez-Sánchez, Rafael M.; Vera-Rodríguez, Juan Carlos; Iriarte, Eneko; Rodríguez-Varela, Ricardo; Bokbot, Youssef; Valdiosera, Cristina; Jakobsson, Mattias (15 June 2023). "Northwest African Neolithic initiated by migrants from Iberia and Levant". Nature. 618 (7965): 550–556. Bibcode:2023Natur.618..550S. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06166-6. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 10266975. PMID 37286608.
  8. ^ Brace, Selina; et al. (15 April 2019). "Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain". Nature Ecology and Evolution. 3 (5). Nature Research: 765–771. Bibcode:2019NatEE...3..765B. doi:10.1038/s41559-019-0871-9. PMC 7005801. PMID 32034181.
  9. ^ The Beaker Phenomenon And The Genomic Transformation Of Northwest Europe (2017)
  10. ^ Bianca Preda (6 May 2020). "Yamnaya – Corded Ware – Bell Beakers: How to conceptualise events of 5000 years ago". The Yamnaya Impact On Prehistoric Europe. University of Helsinki.
  11. ^ a b Cassidy, Lara M.; et al. (17 June 2020). "A dynastic elite in monumental Neolithic society". Nature. 582 (7812). Nature Research: 384–388. Bibcode:2020Natur.582..384C. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2378-6. PMC 7116870. PMID 32555485. S2CID 219729757.
  12. ^ Malmström, Helena; et al. (19 January 2015). "Ancient mitochondrial DNA from the northern fringe of the Neolithic farming expansion in Europe sheds light on the dispersion process". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 370 (1660). Royal Society: 1. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0373. PMC 4275881. PMID 25487325.
  13. ^ a b Manco, Jean (2016). Ancestral Journeys: The Peopling of Europe from the First Venturers to the Vikings (Revised and Updated ed.). Thames & Hudson. p. 98-100. ISBN 978-0-500-77290-4.
  14. ^ Guba, Zsuzsanna; Hadadi, Éva; Major, Ágnes; Furka, Tünde; Juhász, Emese; Koós, Judit; Nagy, Károly; Zeke, Tamás (November 2011). "HVS-I polymorphism screening of ancient human mitochondrial DNA provides evidence for N9a discontinuity and East Asian haplogroups in the Neolithic Hungary". Journal of Human Genetics. 56 (11): 784–796. doi:10.1038/jhg.2011.103. ISSN 1435-232X. PMID 21918529. S2CID 20827921.
  15. ^ Derenko, Miroslava; Malyarchuk, Boris; Grzybowski, Tomasz; Denisova, Galina; Rogalla, Urszula; Perkova, Maria; Dambueva, Irina; Zakharov, Ilia (21 December 2010). "Origin and Post-Glacial Dispersal of Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroups C and D in Northern Asia". PLOS ONE. 5 (12): e15214. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...515214D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015214. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3006427. PMID 21203537.
  16. ^ Bánffy, Eszter (7 June 2012). "'Early Neolithic' graves of the Carpathian Basin are in fact 6000 years younger—Appeal for real interdisciplinarity between archaeology and ancient DNA research". Journal of Human Genetics. 57: 467–469.
  17. ^ Crabtree, Pam J.; Bogucki, Peter (25 January 2017). European Archaeology as Anthropology: Essays in Memory of Bernard Wailes. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-934536-90-2.p.55: "In addition, uniparental markers changed suddenly as mtDNA N1a and Y haplogroup G2a, which had been very common in the EEF agricultural population, were replaced by Y haplogroups R1a and R1b and by a variety of mtDNA haplogroups typical of the Steppe Yamnaya population. The uniparental markers show that the migrants included both men and women from the steppes."
  18. ^ Översti, Sanni; Majander, Kerttu; Salmela, Elina; Salo, Kati; Arppe, Laura; Belskiy, Stanislav; Etu-Sihvola, Heli; Laakso, Ville; Mikkola, Esa; Pfrengle, Saskia; Putkonen, Mikko; Taavitsainen, Jussi-Pekka; Vuoristo, Katja; Wessman, Anna; Sajantila, Antti; Oinonen, Markku; Haak, Wolfgang; Schuenemann, Verena J.; Krause, Johannes; Palo, Jukka U.; Onkamo, Päivi (15 November 2019). "Human mitochondrial DNA lineages in Iron-Age Fennoscandia suggest incipient admixture and eastern introduction of farming-related maternal ancestry". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 16883. Bibcode:2019NatSR...916883O. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-51045-8. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6858343. PMID 31729399. "The subsequent spread of Yamnaya-related people and Corded Ware Culture in the late Neolithic and Bronze Age were accompanied with the increase of haplogroups I, U2 and T1 in Europe (See8 and references therein)."
  19. ^ Juras et al. 2018: We identified, for the first time in ancient populations, the rare mitochondrial haplogroup X4 in two Bronze Age Catacomb culture-associated individuals. Genetic similarity analyses show close maternal genetic affinities between populations associated with both eastern and Baltic Corded Ware culture, and the Yamnaya horizon, in contrast to larger genetic differentiation between populations associated with western Corded Ware culture and the Yamnaya horizon. This indicates that females with steppe ancestry contributed to the formation of populations associated with the eastern Corded Ware culture while more local people, likely of Neolithic farmer ancestry, contributed to the formation of populations associated with western Corded Ware culture.
  20. ^ Olalde et al. 2019, pp. 1–2.
  21. ^ Goldberg et al. 2017.
  22. ^ Lazaridis, Iosif; Reich, David (5 May 2017). "Failure to replicate a genetic signal for sex bias in the steppe migration into central Europe". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (20): E3873–E3874. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114E3873L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1704308114. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5441797. PMID 28476764.
  23. ^ Fernandes, Daniel M.; et al. (2020). "The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 4 (3): 334–345. Bibcode:2020NatEE...4..334F. doi:10.1038/s41559-020-1102-0. PMC 7080320. PMID 32094539.
  24. ^ Allentoft, Morten E.; Sikora, Martin; Refoyo-Martínez, Alba; Irving-Pease, Evan K.; Fischer, Anders; Barrie, William; Ingason, Andrés; Stenderup, Jesper; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Pearson, Alice; Mota, Barbara; Paulsson, Bettina Schulz; Halgren, Alma; Macleod, Ruairidh; Jørkov, Marie Louise Schjellerup (5 May 2022), Population Genomics of Stone Age Eurasia, pp. 2022.05.04.490594, doi:10.1101/2022.05.04.490594, S2CID 248563160
  25. ^ Christina, Clemente, Florian Unterlaender, Martina Dolgova, Olga Amorim, Carlos Eduardo G. Coroado-Santos, Francisco Neuenschwander, Samuel Ganiatsou, Elissavet Davalos, Diana I. Cruz Anchieri, Lucas Michaud, Frederic Winkelbach, Laura Bloecher, Jens Cardenas, Yami Ommar Arizmendi da Mota, Barbara Sousa Kalliga, Eleni Souleles, Angelos Kontopoulos, Ioannis Karamitrou-Mentessidi, Georgia Philaniotou, Olga Sampson, Adamantios Theodorou, Dimitra Tsipopoulou, Metaxia Akamatis, Ioannis Halstead, Paul Kotsakis, Kostas Urem-Kotsou, Dushka Panagiotopoulos, Diamantis Ziota, Christina Triantaphyllou, Sevasti Delaneau, Olivier Jensen, Jeffrey D. Victor Moreno-Mayar, J. Burger, Joachim Sousa, Vitor C. Lao, Oscar Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo Papageorgopoulou (2021). The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations. p. 41. OCLC 1263227362.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ Serra-Vidal, Gerard; Lucas-Sanchez, Marcel; Fadhlaoui-Zid, Karima; Bekada, Asmahan; Zalloua, Pierre; Comas, David (November 2019). "Heterogeneity in Palaeolithic Population Continuity and Neolithic Expansion in North Africa". Current Biology. 29 (22): 3953–3959.e4. Bibcode:2019CBio...29E3953S. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.09.050. PMID 31679935.
  27. ^ Martiniano et al. 2017, p. 9.
  28. ^ Mathieson et al. 2015, p. 4. "[R]esults suggest that the modern South-North gradient in height across Europe is due to both increased steppe ancestry in northern populations, and selection for decreased height in Early Neolithic migrants to southern Europe."
  29. ^ Reich 2018, p. 96
  30. ^ Lalueza-Fox, Carles (1 February 2022). Inequality: A Genetic History. MIT Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-262-04678-7. "p.29: "Physically, early farmers from Anatolia were different from those foragers; they had brown eyes but fair skin...."
  31. ^ Mathieson, Iain; Lazaridis, Iosif; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Patterson, Nick; Roodenberg, Songül Alpaslan; Harney, Eadaoin; Stewardson, Kristin; Fernandes, Daniel; Novak, Mario; Sirak, Kendra; Gamba, Cristina; Jones, Eppie R.; Llamas, Bastien; Dryomov, Stanislav (December 2015). "Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians". Nature. 528 (7583): 499–503. Bibcode:2015Natur.528..499M. doi:10.1038/nature16152. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 4918750. PMID 26595274.
  32. ^ Wang, Ke; Prüfer, Kay; Krause-Kyora, Ben; Childebayeva, Ainash; Schuenemann, Verena J.; Coia, Valentina; Maixner, Frank; Zink, Albert; Schiffels, Stephan; Krause, Johannes (16 August 2023). "High-coverage genome of the Tyrolean Iceman reveals unusually high Anatolian farmer ancestry". Cell Genomics. 3 (9): 100377. doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100377. ISSN 2666-979X. PMC 10504632. PMID 37719142.
  33. ^ Marchi, Nina; Winkelbach, Laura; Schulz, Ilektra; Brami, Maxime; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Blöcher, Jens; Reyna-Blanco, Carlos S.; Diekmann, Yoan; Thiéry, Alexandre; Kapopoulou, Adamandia; Link, Vivian; Piuz, Valérie; Kreutzer, Susanne; Figarska, Sylwia M.; Ganiatsou, Elissavet (May 2022). "The genomic origins of the world's first farmers". Cell. 185 (11): 1842–1859.e18. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.04.008. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 9166250. PMID 35561686. We find that the vast majority of early farmers in our dataset had intermediate to light skin complexion
  34. ^ Irving-Pease, Evan K.; Refoyo-Martínez, Alba; Barrie, William; Ingason, Andrés; Pearson, Alice; Fischer, Anders; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Halgren, Alma S.; Macleod, Ruairidh; Demeter, Fabrice; Henriksen, Rasmus A.; Vimala, Tharsika; McColl, Hugh; Vaughn, Andrew H.; Speidel, Leo (January 2024). "The selection landscape and genetic legacy of ancient Eurasians". Nature. 625 (7994): 312–320. Bibcode:2024Natur.625..312I. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06705-1. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 10781624. PMID 38200293.
  35. ^ Scheu, Amelie; Powell, Adam; Bollongino, Ruth; Vigne, Jean-Denis; Tresset, Anne; Çakırlar, Canan; Benecke, Norbert; Burger, Joachim (December 2015). "The genetic prehistory of domesticated cattle from their origin to the spread across Europe". BMC Genetics. 16 (1): 54. doi:10.1186/s12863-015-0203-2. ISSN 1471-2156. PMC 4445560. PMID 26018295.
  36. ^ Frantz, Laurent A. F.; Haile, James; Lin, Audrey T.; Scheu, Amelie; Geörg, Christina; Benecke, Norbert; Alexander, Michelle; Linderholm, Anna; Mullin, Victoria E.; Daly, Kevin G.; Battista, Vincent M.; Price, Max; Gron, Kurt J.; Alexandri, Panoraia; Arbogast, Rose-Marie (27 August 2019). "Ancient pigs reveal a near-complete genomic turnover following their introduction to Europe". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (35): 17231–17238. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11617231F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1901169116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6717267. PMID 31405970.
  37. ^ Gillis, Rosalind E.; Gaastra, Jane S.; Linden, Marc Vander; Vigne, Jean-Denis (2 January 2022). "A Species Specific Investigation Into Sheep and Goat Husbandry During the Early European Neolithic". Environmental Archaeology. 27 (1): 8–19. Bibcode:2022EnvAr..27....8G. doi:10.1080/14614103.2019.1615214. ISSN 1461-4103.
  38. ^ Brami, Maxime; Heyd, Volker (January 2011). "The origins of Europe's first farmers: The role of Hacılar and Western Anatolia, fifty years on". Praehistorische Zeitschrift. 86 (2). doi:10.1515/pz.2011.011. ISSN 0079-4848.
  39. ^ Fowler, Chris; Olalde, Iñigo; Cummings, Vicki; Armit, Ian; Büster, Lindsey; Cuthbert, Sarah; Rohland, Nadin; Cheronet, Olivia; Pinhasi, Ron; Reich, David (27 January 2022). "A high-resolution picture of kinship practices in an Early Neolithic tomb". Nature. 601 (7894): 584–587. Bibcode:2022Natur.601..584F. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-04241-4. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 8896835. PMID 34937939.
  40. ^ Seersholm, Frederik Valeur; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Koelman, Julia; Blank, Malou; Svensson, Emma M.; Staring, Jacqueline; Fraser, Magdalena; Pinotti, Thomaz; McColl, Hugh; Gaunitz, Charleen; Ruiz-Bedoya, Tatiana; Granehäll, Lena; Villegas-Ramirez, Berenice; Fischer, Anders; Price, T. Douglas (August 2024). "Repeated plague infections across six generations of Neolithic Farmers". Nature. 632 (8023): 114–121. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07651-2. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 11291285. PMID 38987589.
  41. ^ Menotti, Francesco (2007), "The Tripolye house, a sacred and profane coexistence!", WAC-6, 6th World Archaeological Congress (WAC6), Dublin, OCLC 368044032, archived from the original on 13 April 2014{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  42. ^ Chapman, John; Videiko, Mikhail; Gaydarska, Bisserka; Burdo, Natalia; Hale, Duncan; Villis, Richard; Swann, Natalie; Thomas, Nathan; Edwards, Patricia; Blair, Andrew; Hayes, Ashley; Nebbia, Marco; Rud, Vitalij (2014). "The planning of the earliest European proto-towns: A new geophysical plan of the Trypillia mega-site of Nebelivka, Kirovograd Domain, Ukraine". Antiquity. 88 (339).

Bibliography

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Sometimes called as First European Farmers, Neolithic European Farmers or Ancient Aegean Farmers
Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 | Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_European_Farmers
15 views |
↧ Download as ZWI file
Encyclosphere.org EncycloReader is supported by the EncyclosphereKSF