Epistle to the Philippians

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Part of a series of articles on
Paul in the Bible
Pauline literature (Authorship) Romans 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Galatians Ephesians Philippians Colossians 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians 1 Timothy 2 Timothy Titus Philemon
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The Epistle to the Philippians^[a] is a Pauline epistle of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and Timothy is named with him as co-author or co-sender. The letter is addressed to the Christian church in Philippi.^[3] Paul, Timothy, Silas (and perhaps Luke) first visited Philippi in Greece (Macedonia) during Paul's second missionary journey from Antioch, which occurred between approximately 50 and 52 AD. In the account of his visit in the Acts of the Apostles, Paul and Silas are accused of "disturbing the city".^[4]

There is a general consensus that Philippians consists of authentically Pauline material, and that the epistle is a composite of multiple letter fragments from Paul to the church in Philippi.^[5][6]: 17 These letters could have been written from Ephesus in 52–55 AD or Caesarea Maritima in 57–59, but the most likely city of provenance is Rome, around 62 AD, or about 10 years after Paul's first visit to Philippi.^[7]

Starting in the 1960s, a consensus emerged among biblical scholars that Philippians was not written as one unified letter, but rather as a compilation of fragments from three separate letters from Paul to the church in Philippi.^[6]: 17 According to Philip Sellew, Philippians contains the following letter fragments:

• Letter A consists of Philippians 4:10–20. It is a short thank-you note from Paul to the Philippian church, regarding gifts they had sent him.^[8]
• Letter B consists of Philippians 1:1–3:1, and may also include 4:4–9 and 4:21–23.
• Letter C consists of Philippians 3:2–4:1, and may also include 4:2–3. It is a testament to Paul's rejection of all worldly things for the sake of the gospel of Jesus.^[6]: 19

In support of the idea that Philippians is a composite work, Sellew pointed to the abrupt shifts in tone and topic within the text. There also seem to be chronological inconsistencies from one chapter to the next concerning Paul's associate Epaphroditus:

Another argument against unity has been found in the swiftly changing fortunes of Epaphroditus: this associate of Paul is at the point of death in chapter two (Phil 2:25–30), where seemingly he has long been bereft of the company of the Philippian Christians; Paul says that he intended to send him back to Philippi after this apparently lengthy, or at least near-fatal separation. Two chapters later, however, at the end of the canonical letter, Paul notes that Epaphroditus had only now just arrived at Paul's side, carrying a gift from Philippi, a reference found toward the close of the "thank-you note" as a formulaic acknowledgement of receipt at Phil 4:18.

— Philip Sellew^[6]: 18

These letter fragments likely would have been edited into a single document by the first collector of the Pauline corpus, although there is no clear consensus among scholars regarding who this initial collector may have been, or when the first collection of Pauline epistles may have been published.^[6]: 26

Today, a number of scholars believe that Philippians is a composite of multiple letter fragments. According to the theologian G. Walter Hansen, "The traditional view that Philippians was composed as one letter in the form presented in the NT [New Testament] can no longer claim widespread support."^[5]

Regardless of the literary unity of the letter, scholars agree that the material that was compiled into the Epistle to the Philippians was originally composed in Koine Greek, sometime during the 50s or early 60s AD.^[9]

Rome

Philippi

Ephesus

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Rome, Philippi, and Ephesus in the Mediterranean

It is uncertain where Paul was when he wrote the letter(s) that make up Philippians. Internal evidence in the letter itself points clearly to it being composed while Paul was in custody,^[10] but it is unclear which period of imprisonment the letter refers to. If the sequence of events given in the Acts of the Apostles is to be trusted, candidates would include the Roman imprisonment at the end of Acts,^[11] and the earlier Caesarean imprisonment.^[12] Any identification of the place of writing of Philippians is complicated by the fact that some scholars view Acts as being an unreliable source of information about the early Church.^[13]

Jim Reiher has suggested that the letters could stem from the second period of Roman imprisonment attested by early church fathers.^[14][15] The main reasons suggested for a later date include:

1. The letter's highly developed Ecclesiology
2. An impending sense of death permeating the letter
3. The absence of any mention of Luke in a letter to Luke's home church (when the narrative in Acts clearly suggests that Luke was with Paul in his first Roman imprisonment)
4. A harsher imprisonment than the open house arrest of his first Roman imprisonment
5. A similar unique expression that is shared only with 2 Timothy
6. A similar disappointment with co-workers shared only with 2 Timothy

The original manuscript or manuscripts of the epistle are lost, and the text of surviving copies varies. The earliest surviving manuscripts were made centuries later, and include complete and partial copies:

• Papyrus 16 (3rd century)^[16]
• Codex Vaticanus (AD 325–350)
• Codex Sinaiticus (330–360)
• Codex Alexandrinus (400–440)
• Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (c. 450)
• Codex Freerianus (c. 450)^[17]
• Codex Claromontanus (c. 550)

In Chapters 1 and 2 of Philippians (Letter B), Paul sends word to the Philippians of his upcoming sentence in Rome and of his optimism in the face of death,^[19] along with exhortations to imitate his capacity to rejoice in the Lord despite one's circumstances.^[20] Paul assures the Philippians that his imprisonment is actually helping to spread the Christian message, rather than hindering it.^[21] He also expresses gratitude for the devotion and heroism of Epaphroditus, who the Philippian church had sent to visit Paul and bring him gifts.^[22] Some time during his visit with Paul, Epaphroditus apparently contracted some life-threatening debilitating illness.^[23] But he recovers before being sent back to the Philippians.

The epistle opens using a formula found in other Paul's epistles, here with the introduction of himself and Timothy as Christ's "slaves" ("bondservants") as in Romans 1:1.^[24]

Verse 1:1 is translated in the New King James Version as:

Paul and Timothy, bondservants of Jesus Christ,

To all the saints in Christ Jesus who are in Philippi, with the bishops and deacons:^[25]

"Bishops and deacons" could be translated as "overseers" and "helpers";^[26] their functions in the church were not the same as they would later become.^[27]

Verse 1:2 is translated:

Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.^[28]

The wording is identical to Ephesians 1:2.^[29]

This is a common feature in Paul's epistles.^[27] Except in Galatians, Paul thanks or blesses God for the good things he has heard about a particular church in the beginning of his letters.^[30] In this epistle, Paul mixes it with his prayer for the church (1:3–4) and with joy (1:5), "a combination he will recommend in 4:6".^[30] Lutheran pietist Johann Albrecht Bengel says that the whole letter can this be summarised: "The sum of the epistle is, I rejoice, rejoice ye".^[31] Similarly Paul writes to the Thessalonians: Rejoice always; pray without ceasing.^[32]

This section deals with Paul's condition during the confinement in a Roman administrative center, where he could still preach the gospel.^[27] It consists of two subsections with distinctive keywords: the first subsection (verses 12–18) was marked off with two words, "progress" (prokope; verse 12) and "confidence" (verse 14), whereas the second subsection (verses 19–26) has the inclusio markers "joy", "progress" and "trusting".^[33]

Verse 1:21 is translated:

For to me, to live is Christ, and to die is gain.^[34]

"To die is gain": that is, when a believer dies one enters into the presence of God, where fullness of joy is, and immediately with Christ, which is far better than being alive here. This common interpretation is shown by the Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopian versions, which read, "to die (or "if I die"), it is gain to me".^[35]

This section centers on Paul's appeal for unity of minds and hearts among the people, which can be expressed by four phrases: two using the keyword phronein ("of the same mind" or "of one mind"), then agape ("love") and sumpsuchoi ("united in soul" or "being in full accord").^[36] Maintaining his reference to the joy which Paul already feels in respect to the Philippians (verses 1:4 and 1:25), he speaks of this joy being "made full, like a measure".^[37]

Verse 2:1 is translated in the King James Version:

If there be therefore any consolation in Christ, if any comfort of love, if any fellowship of the Spirit, if any bowels and mercies,^[38]

Meyer notes Paul's use of "four stimulative elements", which are assumed to apply and are not conditional.^[37] H. C. G. Moule notes that the word "bowels", as in the King James Version, was not used in any English version before 1582,^[39] and offers "tender mercies and compassions", as in the Revised Version (1881), as better wording:^[40] likewise the New International Version (1973 onwards) refers to "tenderness and compassion.^[41]

Chapter 2 of the epistle contains a famous poem describing the nature of Christ and his act of redemption:

Who, though he was in the form of God,

Did not regard being equal with God

Something to be grasped after.

But he emptied himself

Taking on the form of a slave,

And coming in the likeness of humans.

And being found in appearance as a human

He humbled himself

Becoming obedient unto death— even death on a cross.

Therefore God highly exalted him

And bestowed on him the name

That is above every name,

That at the name of Jesus

Every knee should bow

Of those in heaven, and on earth, and under the earth.

And every tongue should confess

That Jesus Christ is Lord

To the glory of God the Father.

— Philippians 2:5–11, translated by Bart D. Ehrman^[42]

Due to its unique poetic style, Bart D. Ehrman suggests that this passage constitutes an early Christian poem that was composed by someone else prior to Paul's writings, as early as the mid-late 30s AD and was later used by Paul in his epistle. While the passage is often called a "hymn", some scholars believe this to be an inappropriate name since it does not have a rhythmic or metrical structure in the original Greek.^[42] This theory was first proposed by German Protestant theologian Ernst Lohmeyer in 1928, and this "has come to dominate both exegesis of Philippians and study of early Christology and credal formulas".^[43]

Some find the Christ poem significant because it strongly suggests that there were very early Christians who understood Jesus to be a pre-existent celestial being, who chose to take on human form, rather than a human who was later exalted to a divine status.^[44][42]

While the author of the poem apparently believed that Jesus existed in heaven before his physical incarnation, there is some debate about whether he was believed to be equal to God the Father prior to his death and resurrection. This largely depends on how the Greek word harpagmon (ἁρπαγμόν, accusative form of ἁρπαγμός) is translated in verse 6 ("Something to be grasped after / exploited"). If harpagmon is rendered as "something to be exploited," as it is in many Christian Bible translations, then the implication is that Christ was already equal to God prior to his incarnation. But Bart Ehrman and others have argued that the correct translation is in fact "something to be grasped after," implying that Jesus was not equal to God before his resurrection. Outside of this passage, harpagmon and related words were almost always used to refer to something that a person doesn't yet possess but tries to acquire.^[42]

It is widely agreed by interpreters, however, that the Christ poem depicts Jesus as equal to God after his resurrection. This is because the last two stanzas quote Isaiah 45:22–23:^[45] ("Every knee shall bow, every tongue confess"), which in the original context clearly refers to God the Father.^[42] Some scholars argue that Philippians 2:6–11 identifies Jesus with God from his pre-existence on the basis that allusions to Isaiah 45:22–23 are present all throughout the poem.^[46]

Two of Paul's helpers, Timothy and Epaphroditus, are introduced and the reasons for their journey are explained in this part, mainly to show Paul's affection to the people of Philippi.^[47]

In Chapter 3 (Letter C), Paul warns the Philippians about those Christians who insist that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He testifies that while he once was a devout Pharisee and follower of the Jewish law, he now considers these things to be worthless and worldly compared to the gospel of Jesus.^[48]

Paul tells his own story and says how he "emptied himself" for Christ's sake and how his ultimate goal was now to follow the "upward call of God" (verse 14) to the end. Paul describes how his values had changed since becoming a follower of Christ. Jesuit theologian Robert Murray describes this process as a "transvaluation of values", using a phrase adopted from the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche.^[47]

Verse 3 is translated:

For we are the circumcision, who worship God in the Spirit, rejoice in Christ Jesus, and have no confidence in the flesh,^[49]

• "Worship": from Greek word λατρεία, latreia, which is 'used specially of the Jewish ceremonial service' (cf. Romans 9:4; Luke 2:37; Acts 26:7).^[50]

Verse 3:5 is translated:

circumcised the eighth day, of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; concerning the law, a Pharisee;^[51]

• "Circumcised the eight day": according to Genesis 17:12 (cf. Luke 2:21 of Jesus), so Paul became "a member of the covenant from infancy".^[52]
• "Tribe of Benjamin": Paul also stated his tribe in Romans 11:1.^[52]

Verse 3:8 is translated:

Yet indeed I also count all things loss for the excellence of the knowledge of Christ Jesus my Lord, for whom I have suffered the loss of all things, and count them as rubbish, that I may gain Christ^[53]

• "I count all things loss": in comparison to knowing Christ, anything else falls short.^[54]
• "The excellence of the knowledge of Christ Jesus": is not meant subjectively about the knowledge "in Christ" or "about Christ" (as God or as man), but objectively, knowing him in person, as God of all, mainly as "Savior and Redeemer", as Paul emphasizes using the words, "my Lord".^[54] The knowledge is attained, not by natural enlightenment, nor by reasoning, nor by the law of Moses, but by the Gospel of the grace of God.^[54] The efficient cause of this knowledge is God the Father, the Son, and the Spirit; the Father reveals Christ to his followers; the Son gives them an understanding to know him; and the Spirit gives wisdom and revelation in the knowledge of him.^[54] This spiritual knowledge of Christ is more excellent than a knowledge of Christ as human, as the knowledge of Christ from the Gospel is also more excellent than that of the legal dispensation, by promises, prophecies, and the ceremonial law.^[54]
• "For whom I have suffered the loss of all things": Paul dropped all confidence in his bodily privileges, civil, ceremonial, and moral righteousness, for Christ and his righteousness; losing his own good name and reputation among men, suffering many kinds of persecutions, losing the comforts of life, often in cold or nakedness, in hunger or thirst, even being ready to lose his own life for professing and preaching Christ.^[54]
• "Count them as rubbish" (KJV: "dung"): or "dog's meat" (Philippians 3:2), what is only fit for dogs; that is, Paul treats as "worthless" his pedigree, religion sect, and moral righteousness before and after conversion; and everything material that he owns, same as what the early church held, considering its own righteousness as "filthy rags".^[54]
• "That I may gain Christ": not just get "an interest in him", as this he knew he had already, and should never lose it, for it commenced from all eternity and cannot be obtained by good works, nor repentance, nor faith, but is freely given.^[54] Paul wishes that he might gain a larger knowledge of Christ, without care what pains he took, what expenses he was at, nor what loss he sustained or already suffered for what he regards precious, even willing to lose more, for more of this knowledge (cf. Philippians 3:10), because then he gain more with Christ as a "justifying righteousness": acceptance with God, pardon, life, peace, grace, and glory.^[54]

Translator J. B. Phillips,^[55] commentator Robert Murray, the New Revised Standard Version and the Jerusalem Bible connect verse 1 with the final section of the previous chapter, as the conclusion of Paul's main exhortations in chapters 2 and 3.^[56] Commentator Joseph Benson says "certainly it should not have been separated" from chapter 3.^[57]

Paul argues that it is right to be good citizens, but "our citizenship (politeuma) is in heaven".^[58] The section calls on the Philippians to be co-imitators of himself; the Greek word συμμιμηταί (summimetai) is "not elsewhere preserved".^[59]

In Chapter 4, Paul urges the Philippians to resolve conflicts within their fellowship.^[60] In the latter part of the chapter (Letter A), Paul expresses his gratitude for the gifts that the Philippians had sent him, and assures them that God will reward them for their generosity.^[61]

Throughout the epistle there is a sense of optimism. Paul is hopeful that he will be released, and on this basis he promises to send Timothy to the Philippians for ministry,^[62] and also expects to pay them a personal visit.^[63]

Paul asks the two diakonoi, Euodia and Syntyche, female leaders of different house-groups in Philippi, "to be of the same mind" (to think, phronein, "the same").^[56]

Verse 4:3 is translated:

And I urge you also, true companion, help these women who laboured with me in the gospel, with Clement also, and the rest of my fellow workers, whose names are in the Book of Life.^[64]

Paul addresses one of the leaders responsible for the church.^[65] Benson suggests he is probably addressing Silas, "for Silas had been his yoke-fellow at the very place".^[57]

According to Paul, the cure of the troubles in the church is to recall "the charismatic joy of their first coming to faith", just as he told the Thessalonian church that "in spite of persecutions you received the word with joy inspired by the Holy Spirit" (1 Thessalonians 1:6).^[56]

Paul acknowledges the support from the church in Philippi, describing it as "a sacrifice pleasing to God", and prays that God will take care of their needs, before closing the epistle with a mention of "Caesar's household" ("emperor's household") in verse 22, probably as a hint (cf. Philippians 1:13) of the success Paul in obtaining Praetorian contacts.^[66]

Verse 4:13 is given in the New King James Version:

I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me.^[67]

The Greek word Χριστῷ (Christō, "Christ") is found in the majority^[68] of older manuscripts,^[69] but others lack explicit reference, so are rendered as "him".^[70]

Portions of Philippians are used in various Christian lectionaries for regularly scheduled Bible readings.

"Philippians 3:20-21" is a song title in the album "The Life of the World to Come" inspired by these verses that was released by the American band The Mountain Goats in 2009.^[71]

• Textual variants in the Epistle to the Philippians
• Cupio dissolvi

• Coogan, Michael David (2007). Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann; Perkins, Pheme (eds.). The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books: New Revised Standard Version, Issue 48 (Augmented 3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195288810.

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). "Philippians, Epistle to the". Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.

• Abrahamsen, Valerie (March 1988). "Christianity and the Rock Reliefs at Philippi". Biblical Archaeologist. 51 (1): 46–56. doi:10.2307/3210038. JSTOR 3210038. S2CID 195040919.
• Barclay, William. 1975. The Letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Thessalonians. Rev. ed. Daily Bible Study Series. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster.
• Barnes, Albert. 1949. Ephesians, Philippians, and Colossians. Enlarged type edition. Edited by Robert Frew. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker.
• Black, David A. 1995. "The Discourse Structure of Philippians: A Study in Textlinquistics." Novum Testamentum 37.1 (Jan.): 16–49
• Blevins, James L. 1980. "Introduction to Philippians." Review and Expositor 77 (Sum.): 311–325.
• Brooks, James A. 1980. "Introduction to Philippians." Southwestern Journal of Theology 23.1 (Fall): 7–54.
• Bruce, Frederick F. 1989. Philippians. New International Biblical Commentary. New Testament Series. Edited by W. Ward Gasque. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2002.
• Burton, Ernest De Witt. 1896. "The Epistles of the Imprisonment." Biblical World 7.1: 46–56.
• Elkins, Garland. 1976. "The Living Message of Philippians." pp. 171–180 in The Living Messages of the Books of the New Testament. Edited by Garland Elkins and Thomas B. Warren. Jonesboro, Ark.: National Christian.
• Garland, David E. 1985. "The Composition and Unity of Philippians: Some Neglected Literary Factors." Novum Testamentum 27.2 (April): 141–173.
• Hagelberg, Dave. 2007. Philippians: An Ancient Thank You Letter – A Study of Paul and His Ministry Partners' Relationship. English ed. Metro Manila: Philippine Challenge.
• Hawthorne, Gerald F. 1983. Philippians. Word Biblical Commentary 43. Edited by Bruce Metzger. Nashville, Tenn.: Nelson.
• Herrick, Greg. "Introduction, Background, and Outline to Philippians." Bible.org.
• Jackson, Wayne. 1987. The Book of Philippians: A Grammatical and Practical Study. Abilene, Tex.: Quality.
• Kennedy, H. A. A. 1900. "The Epistle to the Philippians." Expositor's Greek Testament. Vol. 3. Edited by W. Robertson Nicoll. New York, NY: Doran.
• Lenski, Richard C. H. 1937. The Interpretation of St. Paul's Epistles to the Galatians, to the Ephesians, and to the Philippians. Repr. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2001.
• Lipscomb, David and J.W. Shepherd. 1968. Ephesians, Philippians, and Colossians. Rev. ed. Edited by J.W. Shepherd. Gospel Advocated Commentary. Nashville, Tenn.: Gospel Advocate.
• Llewelyn, Stephen R. 1995. "Sending Letters in the Ancient World: Paul and the Philippians." Tyndale Bulletin 46.2: 337–356.
• Mackay, B. S. 1961. "Further Thoughts on Philippians." New Testament Studies 7.2 (Jan.): 161–170.
• Martin, Ralph P. 1959. The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians. Tyndale New Testament Commentaries. Ed. By R.V.G. Tasker. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1977.
• Martin, Ralph P. 1976. Philippians. New Century Bible Commentary. New Testament. Edited by Matthew Black. Repr. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans.
• McAlister, Bryan. 2011. "Introduction to Philippians: Mindful of How We Fill Our Minds." Gospel Advocate 153.9 (Sept.): 12–13
• Mule, D. S. M. (1981). The Letter to the Philippians. Cook Book House.
• Müller, Jacobus J. 1955. The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians. New International Commentary on the New Testament. Ed. By Frederick F. Bruce. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1991.
• Pelaez, I. N. (1970). Epistle on the Philippians. Angel & Water;reprint, Angels new books, ed. Michael Angelo. (1987). Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.
• Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, s.v. "Philippians, Letter to the"
• Reicke, Bo. 1970. "Caesarea, Rome, and the Captivity Epistles." pp. 277–286 in Apostolic History and the Gospel: Biblical and Historical Essays Presented to F. F. Bruce. Edited by W. Ward Gasque and Ralph P. Martin. Exeter: Paternoster Press.
• Roper, David. 2003. "Philippians: Rejoicing in Christ." BibleCourses.com. Accessed: 3 Sept. 2011.
• Russell, Ronald. 1982. "Pauline Letter Structure in Philippians." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 25.3 (Sept.): 295–306.
• Sanders, Ed. 1987. "Philippians." pp. 331–339 in New Testament Survey. Edited by Don Shackelford. Searcy, Ark.: Harding University.
• Sergio Rosell Nebreda, Christ Identity: A Social-Scientific Reading of Philippians 2.5–11 (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011) (Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments, 240).
• Swift, Robert C. 1984. "The Theme and Structure of Philippians." Bibliotheca Sacra 141 (July): 234–254.
• Synge, F.C. 1951. Philippians and Colossians. Torch Bible Commentaries. Edited by John Marsh, David M. Paton, and Alan Richardson. London: SCM, 1958.
• Thielman, Frank. 1995. Philippians. NIV Application Commentary. General Editor. Terry Muck. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan.
• Vincent, Marvin R. 1897. The Epistle to the Philippians and to Philemon. International Critical Commentary. Ed. By Samuel R. Driver, Alfred Plummer, Charles A. Briggs. Edinburgh: Clark, 1902.
• Vincent, Marvin R. Vincent's Word Studies in the New Testament. 4 vols. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, n.d.
• Wallace, Daniel B. "Philippians: Introductions, Argument, and Outline." Bible.org.
• Walvoord, John F. 1971. Philippians: Triumph in Christ. Everyman's Bible Commentary. Chicago, Ill.: Moody.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Epistle to the Philippians.

Online translations of the Epistle to the Philippians:

• Online Bible at GospelHall.org
• Bible: Philippians public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions

Online Study of Philippians:

• Letter to the Philippians Online Reading Room: Commentaries and other resources (Tyndale Seminary)
• Letter to the Philippians Online Reading Room: Commentaries and other resources (BiblicalStudies.org.uk)
• Letter to the Philippians Online Reading Room Archived 2017-04-23 at the Wayback Machine: Commentaries and other resources (NTGateway.com)
• Letter to the Philippians Online Reading Room: Commentaries and other resources (TextWeek.com)

Related articles:

• Bible.org introduction to Philippians
• Sermons on Philippians
• Heeren, Achille Vander (1911). "Epistle to the Philippians" . Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12.
• Moffatt, James (1911). "Philippians, Epistle to the" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). pp. 390–392.