History of the administrative division of Russia

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The modern administrative-territorial structure of Russia is a system of territorial organization which is a product of a centuries-long evolution and reforms.

The Kievan Rus' as it formed in the 10th century remained a more or less unified realm under the rule of Yaroslav the Wise (d. 1054), but in the later part of the 11th century, it disintegrated into a number of de facto independent and rivaling principalities, the most important of which were Galicia–Volhynia, the Novgorod Republic, and Vladimir-Suzdal.

Following the advance of the Mongols and the establishment of the Golden Horde in 1240, many parts of the former Kievan Rus' came under the direct administration of Sarai, while others became its dependencies. The Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and later gradually and completely coming under the direct administration of the Crown of Poland. The Novgorod Republic was annexed by the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The grand duchies of Lithuania and Moscow practically divided the former territories of Kievan Rus' between each other, both struggling to gain the seat of the Metropolitan of Kiev.

From the 13th century, the Russian principalities used an administrative subdivision into uyezds, with each such uyezd being subdivided into several volosts, some areas used division of pyatina. Voivodes were the officials appointed to administer and defend the uyezds.

By the 15th century, the Grand Duchy of Moscow was recognized as a direct successor of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. It gradually incorporated all left out adjacent smaller duchies such as the Principality of Yaroslavl, Principality of Rostov and successfully conquered the Principality of Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal, the Principality of Tver as well as the Novgorod Republic. Near the end of the 15th century the Golden Horde fell apart into several smaller khanates and Muscovy for the first time became a sovereign state.

At the start of the 16th century, the Grand Duchy of Moscow managed to annex the Pskov Republic and conquer the Grand Duchy of Ryazan as well as secure number of territories that belonged to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania such as the Upper Oka Principalities and Sloboda Ukraine, thus extending its territory far south. In 1708, the Oka principalities and Sloboda Ukraine were incorporated into the first Kiev Governorate. During the second half of the 16th century, the Grand Duchy of Moscow managed to conquer number of West-Siberian and Volga duchies and khanates such as Kazan Khanate, Siberia Khanate, Astrakhan Khanate, Great Nogai Horde and many others. Some of the territorial acquisitions, however, were lost during the Time of Troubles.

Soon after the Time of Troubles (Treaty of Polyanovka), the Grand Duchy of Moscow was able to recover the Duchy of Smolensk (Smolensk Voivodeship) and later annex territory of Left-bank Ukraine (Truce of Andrusovo).

Prior to the 18th century, the Tsardom of Russia was divided into a system of territorial units called razryads (literally order of units) as part of military reform of 1680.^[1]

• Moscow Razryad
• Sevsk Razryad
• Vladimir Razryad
• Novgorod Razryad
• Kazan Razryad
• Smolensk Razryad
• Ryazan Razryad
• Belgorod Razryad, chartered in 1658 out of the Kiev Voivodeship
• Tambov Razryad
• Tula Razryad
• Tobol Razryad, chartered no later than 1587 (first known Voivodeship)
• Tom Razryad
• Yenisei Razryad

During the 1680s, the Tsardom of Russia acquired a substantial expansion in Transbaikal after signing the Treaty of Nerchinsk with China (Qing dynasty). By this time (at the end of the 17th century), an extensive territory from Yenisei to the Sea of Okhotsk was secured through colonization. The discovery of the Bering Strait in 1728 confirmed the eastern borders of modern Russia. The eastward advance through Siberia extended the Tobol Razryad transforming it into overstretched territory that was initially in 1708 included into Siberia Governorate.

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Technically, the territorial-administrative reform started out in the Tsardom of Russia before the Imperial period. On December 29 [O.S. December 18], 1708, in order to improve the manageability of the vast territory of the state, Tsar Peter the Great issued an ukase (edict) dividing Russia into eight administrative divisions, called governorates (guberniyas), which replaced the 166 uyezds and razryads which existed before the reform:^[2]

• Archangelgorod Governorate
• Azov Governorate
• Ingermanland Governorate
• Kazan Governorate
• Kiev Governorate
• Moscow Governorate
• Siberia Governorate
• Smolensk Governorate

The reform of 1708 established neither the borders of the governorates nor their internal divisions.^[2] The governorates were defined as the sets of cities and the lands adjacent to those cities.^[2] Some older subdivision types also continued to be used.^[2] Between 1710 and 1713, all governorates were subdivided into lots (Russian: доли), each governed by a landrat (ландрат).^[2] Every governorate was administered by an appointed governor, who also headed a board of landrats. The lots' primary purpose was fiscal, and each one was supposed to cover 5,536 homesteads.^[3]

In 1719, Peter enacted another administrative reform to fix the deficiencies of the original system, as the governorates were too big and unmanageable. This reform abolished the system of lots, dividing most of the governorates into provinces (провинции), which were further divided into districts (Russian: дистрикты).

During this time, territories were frequently reshuffled between the governorates, and new governorates were added to accommodate population growth and territorial expansion.

in 1721 the Russian Empire possessed a multinational population of about 17.5 million population in all administrative districts. Out of the 13.5 million Russians, 5.5 million men were liable to the poll tax; 3 percent of them were townsmen and 97 percent peasants. Of the peasants, 25 percent cultivated church lands, 19 percent state lands, and the remainder worked the estates of some 100,000 families of secular landowners. Russia’s territory of about 4,633,200 square miles (12,000,000 square km) included some recent and valuable acquisitions.^[4]

In 1727, soon after Peter the Great's death, Catherine I enacted another reform, which rolled back many of the previous reform's developments. The system of districts was abolished, and the old system of uyezds was restored. A total of 166 uyezds was re-established; together with the newly created uyezds, the Russian Empire had approximately 250.

The reform also reshuffled some territories. Narva Province was transferred from Saint Petersburg Governorate to Revel Governorate; Solikamsk and Vyatka Provinces were transferred from Siberia Governorate to Kazan Governorate; and Uglich and Yaroslavl Provinces were transferred from Saint Petersburg Governorate to Moscow Governorate. In addition, Belgorod, Oryol, and Sevsk Provinces of Kiev Governorate were reconstituted as Belgorod Governorate; and Belozersk, Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, and Velikiye Luki Provinces of Saint Petersburg Governorate were reconstituted as Novgorod Governorate.

The following years saw few changes. In 1728, Ufa Province was transferred from Kazan Governorate to Siberia Governorate, and in 1737, Simbirsk Province was created within Kazan Governorate.

By 1775, the existing system of administrative divisions proved inefficient, which was further underlined by Pugachev's Rebellion, and Catherine the Great issued a document known as Decree on the Governorates (Russian: Учреждение о губерниях).^[5] The second part of the same decree was issued in 1780, which, however, contained very few significant changes with respect to the first part.^[6]

A major administrative territorial restructuring of the Russian Empire after vast land acquisition from the Ottoman Empire and Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 18th century. The reform saw introduction of the office of viceroy (gosudarev namestnik) which later were transformed into a general governor. Gosudarev namestnik literally means an imperial representative to the land. During the reform several already existing governments (guberniya) were combined under the office of the Russian viceroy and were called namestnichestvo. Those namestnichestvo were introduced onto the expanded territory as well, the only exclusion were the governments of Moscow and Saint Petersburg. In 1796 all namestnichetvo were officially renamed into general governments. General governments exercised a small degree of autonomy as certain laws varied from general government to another.^[7]

After the abolition of Russian serfdom in 1861, volosts became a unit of peasant's local self-rule. A number of mirs were united into a typical volost, which had an assembly consisting of elected delegates from the mirs. The self-government of the mirs and volosts was tempered by the authority of the police commissaries (stanovoy) and by the power of general oversight given to the nominated "district committees for the affairs of the peasants".

By the 1910s, 104 administrative governorate units existed.

Subdivisions of the Russian Empire, c. 1914

Russian		Anglicisation	Alternative Name(s)
Russian Cyrillic	Romanisation
European Russia or Ruthenia
Great Russia
Central or Muscovite Russia
Московская губерния	Moskovskaya guberniya	Moscow Governorate
Калужская губерния	Kaluzhskaya guberniya	Kaluga Governorate
Смоленская губерния	Smolenskaya guberniya	Smolensk Governorate
Тверская губерния	Tverskaya guberniya	Tver Governorate
Ярославская губерния	Yaroslavskaya guberniya	Yaroslavl Governorate
Костромская губерния	Kostromskaya guberniya	Kostroma Governorate
Нижегородская губерния	Nizhegorodskaya guberniya	Nizhny Novgorod Governorate
Владимирская губерния	Vladimirskaya guberniya	Vladimir Governorate
Рязанская губерния	Ryazanskaya guberniya	Ryazan Governorate
Тульская губерния	Tul'skaya guberniya	Tula Governorate
Орловская губерния	Orlovskaya guberniya	Oryol Governorate
Курская губерния	Kurskaya guberniya	Kursk Governorate
Воронежская губерния	Voronezhskaya guberniya	Voronezh Governorate
Тамбовская губерния	Tambovskaya guberniya	Tambov Governorate
Far North or Novgorodian Russia
Архангельская губерния	Arkhangel'skaya guberniya	Arkhangelsk Governorate
Олонецкая губерния	Olonetskaya guberniya	Olonets Governorate
Санкт-Петербургская губерния	Santk-Peterburgskaya guberniya	Saint Petersburg Governorate	Petrograd; formerly Swedish Ingria
Псковская губерния	Pskovskaya guberniya	Pskov Governorate
Новгородская губерния	Novgorodskaya guberniya	Novgorod Governorate	Veliky Novgorod
Вологодская губерния	Vologodskaya guberniya	Vologda Governorate
Little Russia or the Zaporizhian Host
Черниговская губерния	Chernigovskaya guberniya	Chernigov Governorate
Полтавская губерния	Poltavskaya guberniya	Poltava Governorate
Харьковская губерния	Khar'kovskaya guberniya	Kharkov Governorate
Northwestern Krai
Ковенская губерния	Kovenskaya guberniya	Kovno Governorate	Kaunas, Kowno
Виленская губерния	Vilenskaya guberniya	Vilna Governorate	Vilnius, Wilno
White Russia
Витебская губерния	Vitebskaya guberniya	Vitebsk Governorate	Vitebskas, Witebsk
Могилевская губерния	Mogilevskaya guberniya	Mogilev Governorate	Mogiliauas, Mohylaw
Black Russia
Минская губерния	Minskaya guberniya	Minsk Governorate	Minskas, Mińsk
Гродненская губерния	Grodnenskaya guberniya	Grodno Governorate	Gardinas
Southwestern Krai (Right-Bank Ukraine)
Холмская губерния	Kholmskaya guberniya	Kholm Governorate	Chelmas, Chełm
Red Russia
Волынская губерния	Volynskaya guberniya	Volhynian Governorate	Volyn, Voluinė, Wołyń
Киевская губерния	Kiyevskaya guberniya	Kiev Governorate	Kyiev, Kijevas, Kijów
Подольская губерния	Podol'skaya guberniya	Podolia Governorate	Podolya, Podolien, Padole
Golden Horde
Khanate of Kazan
Пермская губерния	Permskaya guberniya	Perm Governorate
Вятская губерния	Vyatkskaya guberniya	Vyatka Governorate
Казанская губерния	Kazanskaya guberniya	Kazan Governorate
Уфимская губерния	Ufimskaya guberniya	Ufa Governorate
Оренбургская губерния	Orenburgskaya guberniya	Orenburg Governorate
Самарская губерния	Samarskaya guberniya	Samara Governorate
Симбирская губерния	Simbirskaya guberniya	Simbirsk Governorate
Пензенская губерния	Penzenskaya guberniya	Penza Governorate
Саратовская губерния	Saratovskaya guberniya	Saratov Governorate
Астраханская губерния	Astrakhanskaya guberniya	Astrakhan Governorate
New Russia or Little Tartary
Область Войска Донского	Oblast' Voiska Donskogo	Don Cossack Host
Екатеринославская губерния	Yekaterinoslavskaya guberniya	Ekaterinoslav Governorate
Херсонская губерния	Khersonskaya guberniya	Kherson Governorate	Yedisan
Таврическая губерния	Tavricheskaya guberniya	Taurida Governorate
Бессарабская губерния	Bessarabskaya guberniya	Bessarabian Governorate	Moldavia
Grand Principality of Finland (Swedish Österland)
Улеаборгская губерния	Uleaborgskaya guberniya	Uleaborg Governorate	Uleåborg, Oulu
Ва́заская губерния	Vázaskaya guberniya	Vaasa Governorate	Vaasa
Або-Бьернеборгская губерния	Abo-Byerneborgskaya guberniya	Abo-Byerneborg Governorate	Åbo och Björneborg, Turku ja Pori
Нюландская губерния	Nyulyandskaya guberniya	Nyland Governorate	Uusimaa
Тавастгусская губерния	Tavastgusskaya guberniya	Tavastehus Governorate	Häme
Санкт-Михельская губерния	Sankt-Mikhelskaya guberniya	Saint Michel Governorate	Mikkeli
Выборгская губерния	Vyborgskaya guberniya	Vyborg Governorate	Viipuri
Куопиоская губерния	Kuopioskaya guberniya	Kuopio Governorate
Baltic Governorates
Эстляндская губерния	Estlyandskaya guberniya	Estonia Governorate	Eestimaa, Estland; formerly Swedish Estonia
Лифляндская губерния	Liflyandskaya guberniya	Livonia Governorate	Liivimaa, Livland; formerly Swedish Livonia
Курля́ндская губерния	Kurlyandskaya guberniya	Courland Governorate	Kuršo, Kurzemes; formerly the Duchy of Courland
Vistula Krai or Congress Poland
Калишская губерния	Kalishskaya guberniya	Kalisz Governorate	Kalisz
Келецкая губерния	Keletskaya guberniya	Kelets Governorate	Kielce
Ломжинская губерния	Lomzhskaya guberniya	Lomzh Governorate	Łomża
Люблинская губерния	Lublinskaya guberniya	Lublin Governorate
Петроковская губерния	Petrokovskaya guberniya	Petrokov Governorate	Piotrków
Плоцкая губерния	Plotskaya guberniya	Plotsk Governorate	Płock
Радомская губерния	Radomskaya guberniya	Radom Governorate
Сувалкская губерния	Suvalkskaya guberniya	Suvalki Governorate	Suwałki
Варшавская губерния	Varshavskaya guberniya	Warsaw Governorate	Warszaw
Asian Russia or Great Tartary
Caucasus Viceroyalty
North Caucasus
Кубанская о́бласть	Kubanskaya oblast	Kuban Oblast
Черноморская губерния	Chernomorskaya guberniya	Black Sea Governorate	Circassia
Терская о́бласть	Terskaya oblast	Terek Oblast
Ставропольская губерния	Stavropol'skaya guberniya	Stavropol Governorate
Дагестанская о́бласть	Dagestanskaya oblast	Dagestan Oblast
South Caucasus
Сухумская округ	Sukhumskaya okrug	Sukhum Okrug	Abkhazia
Кутаисская губерния	Kutaisskaya guberniya	Kutais Governorate	formerly the Kingdom of Imereti
Батумская о́бласть	Batumskaya oblast	Batum Oblast
Тифлисская губерния	Tiflisskaya guberniya	Tiflis Governorate	Tbilisi; formerly the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti
Закатальская округ	Zakatal'skaya okrug	Zakatal Okrug	Zaqatala
Бакинская губерния	Bakinskaya guberniya	Baku Governorate	Shirvan
Елизаветпольская губерния	Yelizavetpol'skaya guberniya	Elisavetpol Governorate	Ganja
Карсская о́бласть	Karsskaya oblast	Kars Oblast	Erzurum
Эриванская губерния	Erivanskaya guberniya	Erivan Governorate	Yerevan
Steppes Krai (Kazakh Khanate)
Уральская о́бласть	Ural'skaya oblast	Ural Oblast	formerly the Nogai Horde
Тургайская о́бласть	Turgayskaya oblast	Turgay Oblast
Акмолинская о́бласть	Akmolinskaya oblast	Akmolinsk Oblast	Akmola
Семипалатинская о́бласть	Semipalatinskaya oblast	Semipalatinsk Oblast
Russian Turkestan
Закаспийская о́бласть	Zakaspiyskaya oblast	Transcaspian Oblast	Transoxiana
Хивинское ханство	Khivinskoye khanstvo	Khanate of Khiva
Бухарский Эмират	Bukharskiy Emirat	Emirate of Bukhara
Самаркандская о́бласть	Samarkandskaya oblast	Samarkand Oblast
Ферганская о́бласть	Ferganskaya oblast	Fergana Oblast
Семиреченская о́бласть	Semirechenskaya oblast	Semirechye Oblast	"Seven Rivers"
Сырдарьинская о́бласть	Syrdar'inskaya oblast	Syr-Darya Oblast
Siberia
Тобольская губерния	Tobol'skaya guberniya	Tobolsk Governorate
Томская губерния	Tomskaya guberniya	Tomsk Governorate
Енисейская губерния	Yeniseyskaya guberniya	Yeniseysk Governorate
Иркутская губерния	Irkutskaya guberniya	Irkutsk Governorate
Забайкальская о́бласть	Zabaykal'skaya oblast	Transbaikal Oblast	Transbaikalia, Dauria
Якутская о́бласть	Yakutskaya oblast	Yakutsk Oblast	Yakutia, Sakha
Урянхайская край	Uryankhayskaya krai	Uryankhay Krai	Tuva
Russian Far East
Амурская о́бласть	Amurskaya oblast	Amur Oblast	Priamurye, Russian Manchuria
Приморская о́бласть	Primorskaya oblast	Primorskaya Oblast	"Maritime"
Камчатская о́бласть	Kamchatskaya oblast	Kamchatka Oblast
Сахалинская о́бласть	Sakhalinskaya oblast	Sakhalin Oblast

The Russian SFSR comprised 16 autonomous republics, 5 autonomous oblasts, 10 autonomous okrugs, 6 krais, and 40 oblasts.^[when?]

Uyezds and volosts were abolished by the Soviet administrative reform of 1923–1929. Raions may be roughly called a modern equivalent of the uyezds, and selsoviets may be considered a modern equivalent of the volosts.

The subdivision type of Federal District was created in May 2000 by Vladimir Putin as a part of a wider program designed to reassert federal authority. The original division was into seven federal districts, but in 2010 the North Caucasian Federal District was split off from the Southern Federal District, bringing the number to eight. In 2014, the annexation of Crimea resulted in the creation of a new Crimean Federal District, bringing the number to nine, but it was later merged into the Southern Federal District. Amidst the invasion of Ukraine, four southern Ukrainian regions of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia would later be annexed into Russia in 2022 but were not integrated into the Southern Federal District. All of the six regions that are under Russian occupation are internationally recognized as part of Ukraine.

• Сергей Тархов. "Изменение административно-территориального деления России в XIII-XX вв.". "Логос", 2005, No.1. ISSN 0869-5377 (Sergey Tarkhov. Changes of the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Russia in the 13th–20th centuries).
• Sergei G. Pushkarev. Dictionary of Russian Historical Terms from the Eleventh Century to 1917. New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1970.

• Media related to Maps of governorates of the Russian Empire at Wikimedia Commons