Homophobia in ethnic minority communities

From Wikipedia - Reading time: 46 min

Homophobia in ethnic minority communities is any negative prejudice or form of discrimination in ethnic minority communities worldwide towards people who identify as–or are perceived as being–lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT),[1][2][3] known as homophobia. This may be expressed as antipathy, contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred, irrational fear, and is sometimes related to religious beliefs.[4] A 2006 study by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation in the UK found that while religion can have a positive function in many LGB Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) communities, it can also play a role in supporting homophobia.[5]

Many LGBT ethnic minority persons rely on members of their ethnic group for support on racial matters. Within these communities, homophobia and transphobia often exist within the context of ethnocultural norms on gender and sexual orientation. Caitlin Ryan of the National Youth Advocacy Coalition wrote; "a common fallacy within communities of color is that gay men or lesbians are perceived as 'defective' men or women who want to be a member of the opposite gender".[6]

In some cultures, there are difficulties in categorising homosexuality.[examples needed] Some scholars[who?] have argued that Western notions of sexual identity began to emerge in Europe in the mid-to-late 19th century,[7][8] though others challenge this.[9][10] Behaviors that would be widely regarded as homosexual in the West were regarded as acceptable in around three quarters of the cultures surveyed in Patterns of Sexual Behavior (1951).[11]

Theory

[edit]

Intersectionality and dual minority identity

[edit]

Kimberlé Crenshaw developed the framework for intersectionality; the theory that black women are not wholly defined by a singular identity, which is used in the process of examining the ways in which sexuality and race are related. Considering the ways in which identities interact with each other and create specific experiences related to multiple intersecting identities is a better way of examining individuals and the discrimination they may deal with.[12]

Crenshaw's work also draws upon W. E. B. Du Bois' work, which refers to the fragmented understanding of self that comes with being a black American. It is applicable to the understanding of LGB members in racial and ethnic minority groups. Their multiple identities cause a fragmentation in which they routinely observe themselves, as both queer individuals and racial and ethnic minorities, through the lens of American culture. Du Bois called this concept double consciousness.[13]

Homophobia in ethnic minority communities creates a double bind for LGBT ethnic minorities. Members of these groups experience racial and ethnic discrimination from wider society in addition to homophobia within their ethnic/racial groups. This intersection of multiple forms of discrimination creates a triple threat for LGBT people of color.[14] The first domain of discrimination is racism within LGBT communities which can make it hard for people who belong to an ethnic minority group to identify with the LGBT community and feel like the community is a safe space. This discrimination manifests as discrimination in social areas like bars and organizations where people of color are oftentimes excluded from the space physically and socially, and overall less likely to be welcomed.[15][16]

The second domain is heterosexism within ethnic communities, which is the main focus of this article. However, heterosexism within ethnic communities cannot be treated as a completely separate issue from the other forms of discrimination as many of the forms of discrimination overlap.

The third form of discrimination is racism in close, same-sex relationships in which gay men of color are less-sought-out; solicitations for sex discriminate against race with phrases like "no rice" (referring to no East Asian men), "no curry" (which means no South Asian men), or "no chocolate" (which signifies no black men).[17] Race-based sexual stereotypes are often used within the LGBT community, which impacts potential partner choices for ethnic minority LGBT people. Black and Latino gay men are usually considered aggressive and passionate, and Asian gay men are believed to be feminine, mechanical, and reserved. These preferences are exacerbated by Internet dating sites and apps, where gay men can tailor their partner's bodily preferences according to their tastes.[18]

Effects on health

[edit]

Heterosexism in ethnic minority communities is especially harmful to the mental health of LGBT people of color, who consider their ethnic communities to be a stronger support network than LGBT communities due to racism in the latter.[14] Abandonment by racial community that has provided support throughout childhood in dealing with external racism is feared. Due to the racial community's importance for LGBT people of color, discrimination within their own communities negatively effects mental health. If people are more dependent on their ethnic communities, they may favor their racial identity over their sexual identity.[19] Heterosexism is thus a stressor because of the understanding of external racial oppression as well as internalized homophobia and self-hatred. Homophobia within ethnic minority communities is caused by the unique cultural practices of each ethnic minority and by the broader issue of Western, non-white discrimination.[20]

This discrimination creates the need for a supportive community to undo the psychological damage it causes.[21] Non-heterosexual people of color often find that neither racial community nor sexual orientation community can cater to their psychological needs since the racial community can sometimes be homophobic and the LGBT community can sometimes be racist. Minority groups find solace in support networks among themselves but clinical spaces continue to be inaccessible to LGBT-POC. When minority people experience invalidations of their experience, it becomes difficult to find necessary health services for LGBT-POC.[22] Within the clinic, a white psychiatrist may not understand the social needs of a person of color, and spaces for dual-minority identity development are relatively lacking. Micro-aggressions within the clinic are detrimental for mental health and prevention requires additional effort from practicing counselors to be stripped of bias, informed of unique issues, and further support networks.[23]

Effects on coming out

[edit]

Heterosexism in ethnic minority communities can account for delays in the process of coming out between dominant cultures, mostly white LGBT people and LGBT people of color. LGBT people of color, on average, come out to their families and communities later than white LGBT people.[24] White LGBT youth will generally find it easier to come out to their families because there is a broader range of social acceptability. Since white LGBT youth can typically better identify with white-dominated LGBT communities, they can find an additional safe community outside of their biological family and face no fear of external societal racism.[25]

Young LGBT-POC feel the additional stigma from their own community combined with the stigma white LGBT youth face, and risking alienation from family and community means losing an important support network for POC due to the cultural oppression of racial minorities.[26] As ethnic minorities in a mostly Western context, however, ethnic communities can sometimes be strong enough to provide some form of solace for individuals who identify as LGBT.[27] If the oppression of the ethnic minority group is stronger in general society, homophobia from within may be more bearable than losing access to a racial community.[19] Some other research has found heterosexism and levels of internalized homophobia are similar for both white and POC LGBT people.[28]

United States

[edit]

Attitudes towards sexual orientation vary throughout the United States. Social and cultural mores of sexuality have a large sociological impact on individual behavior, especially in the family unit. Many ethnic minority families in the United States do not feel comfortable discussing sexuality and disclosure of one's sexual orientation or identity often presents challenges. Many feel their coming-out may force them to be loyal to one community rather than another.[29] In the United States, 44% of LGBT students persons of color have reported experiencing bullying based on their sexual orientation and/or race; 13% reported physical harassment and 7% reported physical assault for the same reasons.[30]

Black community

[edit]

It has been asserted that the African-American community is largely homophobic.[31][32] Reasons for this include the image young, black males are expected to convey in the public sphere;[33] that homosexuality is seen as antithetical to being black in the African American community;[34][35][36][37] and the association of the African American community with the church in the United States.[38][39][40][41][42][43]

However, the notion that homophobia is more prevalent in the African American community has also been heavily disputed. Data from the Pew Research Center suggests that black people are only marginally more homophobic than white people.[44] Lauron Kehrer points out that exit polls that exaggerated black opposition to gay marriage in California were later proven to be inaccurate, and that the view that Black people are not significantly more homophobic than the dominant American culture.[45] According to Ilan Meyer, the literate suggests that the Black community is not more homophobic than the White community. Gay black people do not perceive the Black community as more homophobic than the White community, although they do view both as extremely homophobic.[46] According to Alton Hornsby, black people are not more homophobic than the broader American culture, which has restricted same-sex sexuality and LGBT social participation.[47]

In a 2012 survey of 120,000 adults, African Americans were more likely to self-identify as LGBT than all other racial or ethnic groups in the United States. According to the data, 4.6% of African Americans identify as LGBT compared with 3.4% of the population overall. According to Frank Newport, this contradicts stereotypes that African-Americans and other minorities are less likely to identify as LGBT.[48] In recent years, African American celebrities such as Jason Collins, Michael Sam, and Robin Roberts have come out.[49]

Research suggests that African-Americans have complex views on gay civil rights. While African-Americans are more likely than white people to support laws that protect LGBT people from employment discrimination, they are less likely to support gay adoption rights.[50] According to Tiffany Willoughby-Herard, African-Americans are less likely to support gay marriage than white Americans. However, after controlling for age and religious identification, African-Americans are more likely to support gay marriage rights and civil liberties than white people. Research suggests that the higher Black affiliation with certain Protestant and Catholic denominations plays a role in black views on gay marriage.[51] Age also appears to play a significant role in African American views on gay rights, as there is a large generation gap between the views of older black Americans and black youth. Other authors have questioned the idea that blacks are uniquely homophobic.[52][53][54][55][56]

African American LGBT people tend to identify more with their racial/ethnic category rather than their sexual orientation as a main identity reference group. Black LGBT people are often hesitant about revealing their sexuality to their friends and families because of homosexuality's incompatibility with cultural gender roles.[27] Thus, when black people—especially black lesbians—come out, family and community loyalty can provide a safety net to prevent social alienation. This familial safety net of acceptance is not full tolerance; for black lesbians, the community of "girlfriends" may grant acceptance providing there is a tacit silence about the LGBT woman's sexuality.[57]

Black people tend to express more homophobic attitudes, but there is a link between education, religion, and homophobic attitudes.[58] Education has an impact on homophobic attitudes and views of sexuality within the black community. This follows a nationwide trend; more educated people are likely to be more accepting of non-heterosexual sexuality. Better education typically means less affiliation to conservative religions or denominations, which limits the influence of socially conservative ideas.[59] Barack Obama acknowledged homophobia within the African American community and said; "If we are honest with ourselves, we'll acknowledge that our own community has not always been true to Martin Luther King's vision of a beloved community ... We have scorned our gay brothers and sisters instead of embracing them".[60]

The perceived bias against homosexuality in the African American community has led to the sub-cultural phenomenon "on the down-low", in which black men who identify as heterosexual secretly have sex with men.[61][62][63][64] The term is also used to refer to a sexual identity.[64][65]

LGBT African Americans often face homophobia from heterosexual African Americans and conflict with LGBT Whites due to racism within LGBT culture.[66] According to Margaret L. Anderson and Patricia Hill Collins, "The linkage between race, class, and gender is revealed within studies of sexuality, just as sexuality is a dimension of each. For example, constructing images about Black sexuality is central to maintaining institutional racism."[67] Celebrations of U.S. African-American LGBT identity include black gay pride celebrations in black-majority urban areas. Other endeavors support African-American representation in LGBT media, such as the short-lived television series Noah's Arc.[68][69]

Homophobia and the Black Church

[edit]

The African American church, also known as the Black Church, is a central part of mainstream African American culture. The Black Church is a combination of Protestant Christian denominations, including the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, the National Baptist Convention, and the Church of God in Christ.[70]

This link between the church and black culture was formed during slavery; the church provided spiritual support for slaves. Religiosity helped keep slaves' morale high. When they began to plan their escape from the plantations, codes conveying secret messages about their plans were embedded into worship songs.[71]

This history of the Black Church and slaves has created an indelible bond between African Americans and the church.[72] The values preached in the Black Church tend to be socially conservative, with the exclusion of ways the church addresses the homeless. In the home, so-called “traditional” family values prevail. Maintaining a nuclear family with a man as the main provider and a woman as the staple of the house are the dominant values within the Black Church. Heterosexuality is seen as the only acceptable standard while homosexuality is seen as condemnable by God.[58][73]

Hip-hop

[edit]

Hip hop has long been one of the least LGBTQ-friendly genres of music, with a significant body of the genre containing homophobic views and anti-gay lyrics.[74] Attitudes towards homosexuality in hip hop culture have historically been negative. Gay slurs like "sus", "no homo", and "pause" can be heard in hip hop lyrics from the industry's biggest stars.[75] According to the LA Times, these slurs were used to put "queerness as a punchline".[75]

Homophobia and Historically Black Colleges and Universities

[edit]

Historically black colleges and universities[76] commonly referred to as HBCUs are another pinnacle part of Black culture. HBCUs are schools built after the American Civil War that were built to primarily serve African Americans in the south after Black students were not allowed to attend predominantly white institutions.[77] There were originally 121 institutions but because of funding issues, some schools have closed and there are only 101 left.

On the campus of HBCUs, the Black experience is continued by creating a culture of security from opposing races by faculty, staff, and students. However, some students come against a barrier because of their intersectionality with being Black and a part of the LGBTQ+ community.[78] Some campuses have begun to make a conscious effort to end the rampant homophobia, however, that progress has been moving at an unhurried pace. Morgan State University is the first of few HBCUs to implement gender-neutral bathrooms and plans to implement a living-learning community in the future dedicated to creating gender-neutral spaces.[79]

With the push for a more inclusive environment, some are still pushing the archaic ideologies of scholarly Black men and women on their campuses. In 2009, on the campus of the famed all-male Morehouse College,[80] a new dress code policy was enacted that explicitly barred students from wearing women's clothing to any sponsored University events. This was a direct response to the college's students who were feminine presenting. The purpose of the dress code policy is to promote the vision of a “Morehouse Man” which is a “leader on campus and within the community.” [77] This incident comes 6-years after a gay-bashing incident on the Morehouse campus after a mistaken sexual advanced was made by one male-student to another. Nevertheless, the college has begun to make changes to support its LGBTQ+ students and has established a task force to tackle its diversity and tolerance issues.[81]

The lack of visibility for the LGBTQ+ community on HBCU campuses is an issue that also permeates its halls. In a study on perspectives from LGBTQ+ students, one student noted “You seldom hear the topic be addressed on gay people. I can’t recall ever hearing of an awareness week or a seminar… [78] Many at HBCUs are even taught to denounce their intersectionality and be “Black first, then-Gay second.” [82] This belief comes from the common knowledge that because one is gay, they will be discredited. The homophobia on HBCU campuses can be connected to its conservative beliefs that stem from the ideologies of the Black church.[82]

Homophobia and AIDS in the black community

[edit]

The disproportionately high incidence of HIV/AIDS among African Americans is attributed to homophobic attitudes. Black communities associate the disease almost exclusively with gay white men and not with members of their own community.[83] Many still view HIV/AIDS as a gay disease; homophobia is one of the obstacles preventing better treatment for black people with AIDS. Irene Monroe of Huffington Post wrote; "while nearly 600,000 African Americans are living with HIV, and as many 30,000 newly infected each year, there is still within the black community one in five living with HIV and unaware of their infection; and, they are disproportionately heterosexuals. As long as we continue to think of HIV/AIDS as a gay disease, we'll not protect ourselves from this epidemic."[84]

There is a direct link between homophobia and AIDS in the black community. The more homophobia LBGT people experience, the more likely they are to engage in unprotected anal intercourse. Studies have also found people are more likely to engage in risky sex if they strongly identify themselves with their sexuality and their race.[85][86]

Unprotected anal intercourse may be a mechanism used by some to cope with homophobic attitudes they face within their own community and in society. Some[who?] have said unprotected sex increases intimacy with partners and that people seek this closeness when confronted with discriminatory attitudes. Unprotected sex is used as a defense mechanism through which queer black men can deal with harsh realities.[87]

Latino community

[edit]

The Latino community in the United States is largely accepting of LGBT people, with a large majority supporting gay marriage according to some polls.[88][89] There is evidence that Latinos in America are significantly more likely to identify as LGBT than the general population. Latinos adults are twice as likely as white or black Americans to identify as LGBT,[90] and nearly 22% of Latino youth identify as LGBT, making them by far the most likely group in America to claim an LGBT identity.[91] As both ethnic and sexual minorities, queer Latinos may navigate contradictory identities, which Gloria Anzaldúa calls "mestiza consciousness".[92][93] "Borderland" spaces composed strictly of queer Latinos, allow them to express their sexuality without consequences.[94][95] One such space was magazine Esto no tiene nombre's community for Latina lesbians.[96]

Family gender roles in Hispanic/Latino culture are sometimes considered to be defined by clear brightlines. Oftentimes, Fathers and husbands hold power over the women in their lives; same-sex relationships disrupt the traditional role.[27] This overt silence about sexuality may be nuanced; family identity and community are important to Hispanic/Latino families, which sometimes offer a support network despite the LGBT child's disobedience against the nuclear family. Because Latino/an LGBT people experience greater racial discrimination in broader society, primary support can come from families where they are stigmatized yet still accepted.[27]

Gay Latinos report ostracism from their friends and peers, who tell them they are "not truly 'men'."[97] Community attitudes treat male homosexuality as "dirty, shameful and abnormal",[97] and Latina lesbians are stereotyped as traitors who have forsaken their roots.[98] Cherríe Moraga said Chicana lesbians are perceived as Malinche figures who are corrupted by foreign influences that contribute to the "genocide" of their people, even if they have children.[99] These stigmas are historically ingrained into Latino cultures; Latina lesbians who have spoken to their families about their sexuality still feel they are silenced.[94]

A Green Heritage News editor stated homophobia in the Latino community is tied to a value system that finds it difficult to accept overt sexuality. It is also a part of rigid gender roles and machismo. This has influenced many people with HIV/AIDS to avoid being tested for the disease in the Hispanic community.[100] Covert homophobia in the use of terms such as that's so gay and no homo are also common.[101] Toronto Blue Jays shortstop Yunel Escabar was banned from playing after writing the phrase tu eres maricón on his eye tape (Spanish for "you are a faggot").[102] Hector Conteras, a DJ, "prompted listeners via Twitter to denounce what they considered 'gay behavior' from their peers at work, school, their neighborhood or within their own family".[103]

In the U.S., Latino/a children who identify as LGBTQ face scrutiny from their community at home and in schools, especially within a high school or college preparation experience.[104] While facing scrutiny from family and community to maintain gender normality to prosper in the U.S., they also face scrutiny from their peers, mentors and educational administrators.[105] This scrutiny includes a lack of acceptance and recognition as a separate educational entity within sexual education programs provided by many high school education districts.[106] Latinas are viewed as needing to have less interest in sexual education while Latinos are told to maintain focus and to take the education seriously.[107] When teachers are prompted to explain sexual education for lesbians or gays, the teachers or educators assume the student body to be uniformly heterosexual and refuse or consider the questions immature and outside the scope of their teaching.[108]

LGBT discrimination has a negative impact on the mental health of Latino/as; LGBT Latinas, however, experience less homophobia than their male contemporaries. This can be attributed to socialization that condemns same-sex male relationships more harshly than same-sex female relationships. Men experience more internalized homophobia than Latina women, which impacts their well-being.[21][109]

For Latino/as, creating environments that enable LGBT individuals to be themselves without fear of judgement is necessary for overall health. Implementing programs that empower LGBT Latinos is an effective measure in the prevention of HIV.[105] Self-identification also needs to be observed; if a person identifies strongly as both queer and Latino, that impacts their overall feeling of well-being.[110] Strong self-identification with marginalized groups can contribute to internalized homophobia.[111][107]

Asian American and Pacific Islander community

[edit]

Homophobia in the Asian American community is an ongoing issue.[112][113][114][115][116] One study found approximately 90% of Asian and Pacific Islanders (APIs) who self-identified as LGBT thought homophobia or transphobia is an issue in the API community.[117] Homosexuality is sometimes considered a mental disorder in many Asian countries of origin; shock therapy, public shaming, or other denigrating methods are sometimes used in an attempt to rid someone of homosexuality.[118]

According to Amy Sueyoshi, "Voices from the queer left, though opposed to homophobia in cultural nationalism, have picked up the protest against the feminization of Asian American men in the gay community".[119] While having different perspectives, both groups support a phallocentric standard of Asian American male sexuality."[120][121]

Cultural expectations

[edit]

Homophobia in the Asian American/Pacific Islander community can be prevalent due to cultural expectations that some members of the community hold. These cultural expectations are not universal or uniform, but may help explain why some LGBT Asian Americans feel homophobic pressure from their ethnic communities.

Some Asian Americans and first-generation Asian immigrants consider homosexuality to be Western in nature, especially since the concept of "gay identity" is a term coined in the Western world.[122] A large percentage of Asian languages do not have a specific word describing homosexuality, gay, lesbian, etc., but rather several stand-in terms that roughly reference one's sexuality. Due to lacking specific terminology for certain concepts, there often is little to no frame of reference for understanding the dynamic of same-sex sexual relationships. The attempted explanation of gay identity to one's community creates a language barrier between the community and the LGBT member where the LGBT person has difficulty explaining their sexual orientation to their family and community members, exacerbating the lack of understanding and cultural rift between supposedly Western conceptions of homosexuality and heterosexism.[123]

Homosexuality is considered to not be associated with Asian cultures, especially in Japanese culture which operate with limited gender roles. However, it was romanticized in Chinese culture, embraced by the people so long, until the establishment of the PRC which demolished such bondage. Thus, when LGBT Asian American children try to explain their gay identity to their parents, it often can be unsuccessful since there is no equivalent concept in Asian culture. Even in Western understandings, Asian American LGBT people find little to no representation.[124] Coming out and continual assertion of gay identity is viewed as a rejection of fundamental Asian cultural values; due to the belief that homosexuality is a Western concept, LGBT children become sources of familial shame for Asian American and Asian immigrant mothers.[125]

Verbal openness and communication in Asian American families is often considered to be restrained in comparison to white families. Non-verbal cues and indirect high-context communication are valued by Asian American families.[126] As a part of acculturating to Western society, second-generation Asian Americans start to use more English and speak less of their parents' language, which makes deeper discussion of issues between generations more difficult.[127] This can lead to pushing back discussions about sex and relationships, which gives Asian American children a late start in comparison to their peers.[128] The overall lower amount of open communication compounds difficulties in expressing identity to their community.

Oftentimes, sexual shame accompanies any discussion of sexual orientation. Actively and openly pursuing sexual desires are often discouraged regardless of sexual orientation; however, this effect is exacerbated for LGBT Asian American children and makes it incredibly difficult to come out to family members.[129][130] Those who belong to Asian cultures may feel that sex is a taboo topic that should not be discussed in detail, and view discussions about sexuality and sexual orientation to be shameful.[131] Asian immigrant parents often feel that nobody else in the community would understand their child's sexuality, and thus prefer to avoid the topic of sexual orientation altogether.[132] The family will oftentimes refuse to acknowledge their sexual orientation even if they have previously discussed it with their family members.[133]

Filial piety is also considered another potential reason for why Asian Americans experience homophobia within their ethnic community. Asian immigrant parents may carry cultural values from their country of origin, including Confucian ideals of filial piety for the eldest son to carry on the family name, care for the parents as they grow old, and respect their ancestors.[127] However, each family is different based on generation of immigrant as well as level of acculturation to "Americanized" views, so level of adherence to traditional values may differ. LGBT Asian American children are viewed as unable to carry on the family name if they are solely attracted to the same-sex and choose not to have children. These traditional values also affect whether or not the child chooses to disclose sexual identity and how the family responds to their child's disclosure.[134]

Unique challenges arise from the Asian American LGBT experience when being gay is considered a form of social deviance that brings shame to the family name for the cultural reasons listed above, making it more difficult to come out to Asian Americans than to other Americans. Sexual orientation disclosure is not an openly celebrated event, and once Asian American children do come out, their parents often believe that their homosexuality is a result of their particular parenting choices, and may shame themselves for not "correcting" their children in an early age.[135]

Internalized homophobia

[edit]

The expectations placed on Asian American LGBT people can oftentimes lead to internalization of homophobic attitudes or reluctance to embrace their sexual orientation. If an Asian American LGBT person felt more culturally adherent to Asian country of origin values, they are more likely to experience internalized heterosexism and were less likely to disclose sexual identity to others in comparison to those who did not adhere as much to traditional values.[136] Family-oriented and socially-oriented identity interact with internalized heteronormativity; these three factors influence one's choice to come out or enter a straight marriage.[137]

Managing internalized homophobia in order to keep feelings of inadequacy away includes tactics that respond to external oppression from the Asian American community and from LGBT communities. Some respond to stigma by attempting to pass for straight or continually cover their orientation to avoid discrimination; if family members have been told about sexual orientation, they may simply choose to not discuss the issue and act as if the person is not homosexual.[138] In the cases of some gay Asian men, they respond to stigmatized status by re-appropriating and destigmatizing assumptions of excessive femininity compared to other gay men. Some may also redefine homophobia within the Asian American community as being a Western ideal; if homophobia is framed as not truly being a part of Asian beliefs, gay Asian Americans can reclaim their Asian authenticity.[139]

However, some studies have found that there are no significant differences for the amount of internalized homophobia Asian American LGBT people experience.[140]

Acceptance

[edit]

Similarly to other ethnic minorities in the US, the dual minority identity may make a family support network more important to maintain than disowning a child. Yet in Asian American cultures, there is often a lesser degree of overt expression of love, which can affect the parent-and-child relationship after disclosing a non-straight sexual identity. If an Asian American family feels their familial ties are strong, coming out does not represent a permanent split but rather a shift towards a new form of embracing the homosexual family member.[141] This form of acceptance can help LGBT people feel more comfortable in their own identity.[142][143]

United Kingdom

[edit]

In the UK, among all racial groups, there is a widespread assumption that being gay is a phenomenon limited to white people.[144] It has been suggested that this means many Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) people's healthcare needs are not being met, and this could be dangerous, because LGBT BME people's needs may differ from those of white LGBT people.[145]

BME LGBT communities are disproportionately affected by homophobic violence, abuse and harassment. A study conducted in London found BME LGBT people are more likely to experience physical abuse and harassment from a stranger, but were equally likely to have experienced verbal abuse as their white LGBT counterparts.[146] Because of the societal pressures of discrimination and victimization, BME LGBT Britons are more likely to have mental health issues.[147]

Black British community

[edit]

Circa 2013 Homophobia in the Black British community is prevalent. In the UK, many gay people in the black community get married or have partners of the opposite sex to hide their sexual orientation.[148] In the Black community, hate music against LGBT people has been composed; campaigns such as Stop Murder Music have tried to counteract this, although they have had little success in lessening homophobia within the Black British community.[149][150] Some[who?] have regarded this and other anti-homophobia efforts aimed at the Black British community as racist, which makes many social critics reluctant to criticise homophobia in the Black community.[151][152]

Some members of the Black British community see homosexuality as a "white disease".[148][153][better source needed][154] Many Black British gay people face being socially isolated from their communities and the possibility of being assaulted or murdered.[155]

British Asian community

[edit]

Homophobia remains an issue among the British Asian community as well, although some outside advocates of LGBT acceptance in BME communities have reinforced conservative attitudes towards sexual orientation, receiving criticism for doing so from many LGBT British Asians.[5] Patrick McAleenan has written in The Telegraph that "homophobia taints the British Asian community" and that the "opposition to a gay lifestyle [is] still strong amongst the British Asian community".[156] Balaji Ravichandran commented in The Guardian that while "in the south Asian diaspora, being gay is often deeply taboo"; he also believes the "gay community should help south Asians", pointing to the perceived racism of white gay men against LGBT British Asians.[157]

In 2010, the joint Foreign and Commonwealth Office and British Home Office Forced Marriage Unit[158] noted a 65% increase in forced marriages among primarily British Asian men. Many in the British Asian community who contacted the FMU were put into forced marriages because their families suspected they were gay or bisexual.[159]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Maurianne Adams; Lee Anne Bell; Pat Griffin (2007). Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice. Routledge. pp. 198–199. ISBN 978-1135928506. Archived from the original on May 14, 2015. Retrieved December 27, 2014. Because of the complicated interplay among gender identity, gender roles, and sexual identity, transgender people are often assumed to be lesbian or gay (See Overview: Sexism, Heterosexism, and Transgender Oppression). [...] Because transgender identity challenges a binary conception of sexuality and gender, educators must clarify their own understanding of these concepts. [...] Facilitators must be able to help participants understand the connections among sexism, heterosexism, and transgender oppression and the ways in which gender roles are maintained, in part, through homophobia.
  2. ^ Claire M. Renzetti; Jeffrey L. Edleson (2008). Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Violence. SAGE Publications. p. 338. ISBN 978-1452265919. Archived from the original on May 15, 2015. Retrieved December 27, 2014. In a culture of homophobia (an irrational fear of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender [GLBT] people), GLBT people often face a heightened risk of violence specific to their sexual identities.
  3. ^ Kerri Durnell Schuiling; Frances E. Likis (2011). Women's Gynecologic Health. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 187–188. ISBN 978-0763756376. Archived from the original on May 14, 2015. Retrieved December 27, 2014. Homophobia is an individual's irrational fear or hate of homosexual people. This may include bisexual or transgender persons, but sometimes the more distinct terms of biphobia or transphobia, respectively, are used.
  4. ^ *"webster.com". 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-29.[permanent dead link]
  5. ^ a b Blakey, H, Pearce, J and Chesters, G (2006) Minorities within minorities: Beneath the surface of South Asian participation Archived 2019-08-05 at the Wayback Machine, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York.
  6. ^ "A Review of the Professional Literature and Research Needs for LGBT Youth of Color" (PDF). National Youth Advocacy Coalition. 2002. p. 7.
  7. ^ Katz, Jonathan Ned, The Invention of Heterosexuality Plume, 1996
  8. ^ Andrews, Walter and Kalpakli, Mehmet, The Age of Beloveds: Love and the Beloved in Early Modern Ottoman and European Culture and Society Duke University Press, 2005 pp. 11–12
  9. ^ Norton, Rictor (2016). Myth of the Modern Homosexual. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781474286923. The author has made adapted and expanded portions of this book available online as A Critique of Social Constructionism and Postmodern Queer Theory Archived 2019-03-30 at the Wayback Machine.
  10. ^ Boswell, John (1989). "Revolutions, Universals, and Sexual Categories" (PDF). In Duberman, Martin Bauml; Vicinus, Martha; Chauncey, George Jr. (eds.). Hidden From History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past. Penguin Books. pp. 17–36. S2CID 34904667. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-03-04.
  11. ^ Ford, C. S. & Beach, F. A. (1951). Patterns of Sexual Behavior. New York: Harper and Row.
  12. ^ Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241-1299. Retrieved from JSTOR 1229039
  13. ^ Wallace, David L. (September 2002). "Out in the Academy: Heterosexism, Invisibility, and Double Consciousness". College English. 65 (1): 53–66. doi:10.2307/3250730. JSTOR 3250730.
  14. ^ a b Balsam, Kimberly; Molina, Yamile; Beadnell, Blair; Simoni, Jane; Walters, Karina (2011). "Measuring Multiple Minority Stress: The LGBT People of Color Microaggressions Scale". Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology. 17 (2): 163–174. doi:10.1037/a0023244. PMC 4059824. PMID 21604840.
  15. ^ Han, C. (2007). "They don't want to cruise your type: Gay men of color and the racial politics of exclusion". Social Identities. 13 (13): 51–67. doi:10.1080/13504630601163379. S2CID 143501478.
  16. ^ Ward, J. (2008). "White normativity: The cultural dimensions of Whiteness in a racially diverse LGBT organization". Sociological Perspectives. 51 (3): 563–586. doi:10.1525/sop.2008.51.3.563. S2CID 144021623.
  17. ^ Truong, Kevin (September 22, 2018). "After 'sexual racism' accusations, gay dating app Grindr gets 'Kindr'". NBC. Retrieved 25 October 2019.
  18. ^ Wilson, PA; Valera, P; Ventuneac, A; Balan, I; Rowe, M; Carballo-Diéguez, A (2009). "Race-based sexual stereotyping and sexual partnering among men who use the internet to identify other men for bareback sex". Journal of Sex Research. 46 (5): 339–413. doi:10.1080/00224490902846479. PMC 2754596. PMID 19337934.
  19. ^ a b McQueeney, K (2009). ""We are God's Children, Y'All:" Race, gender, and sexuality in lesbian and gay-affirming congregations". Social Problems. 56 (56): 151–173. doi:10.1525/sp.2009.56.1.151.
  20. ^ Dubé, EM; Savin-Williams, RC (1999). "Sexual identity development among ethnic sexual-minority male youths". Developmental Psychology. 35 (6): 1389–1399. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.6.1389. PMID 10563729.
  21. ^ a b Diaz, R. M., Ph.D., Ayala, G., PsyD., Bein, E., Ph.D., Henne, J., MA, & Marin, B. V., Ph.D. (2001). The Impact of Homophobia, Poverty, and Racism on the Mental Health of Gay and Bisexual Latino Men: Findings From 3 US Cities. American Journal of Public Health, 927-932.
  22. ^ Sue, DW; Capodilupo, CM; Torino, CG; Bucceri, JM; Holder, AMB; Nadal, KL; Esquilin, M (2007). "Racial microaggressions in everyday life–Implications for clinical practice". American Psychologist. 62 (4): 271–286. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271. PMID 17516773. S2CID 7326535.
  23. ^ Nadal, KL (2008). "Preventing racial, ethnic, gender, sexual minority, disability, and religious microaggressions: Recommendations for promoting positive mental health". Prevention in Counseling Psychology: Theory, Research, Practice and Training (2): 22–27.
  24. ^ Grov, C; Bimbi, DS; Parsons, JT; Nanín, JE (2006). "Layer upon layer: The coming out process as it relates to generations, race and gender". Journal of Sex Research. 43 (2): 115–121. doi:10.1080/00224490609552306. PMID 16817058. S2CID 29930915.
  25. ^ Parks, CA; Hughes, TL; Matthews, AK (2004). "Race/ethnicity and sexual orientation: Intersecting identities". Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 10 (3): 241–254. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.10.3.241. PMID 15311977.
  26. ^ Rosario, M; Schrimsaw, EW; Hunter, J (2004). "Ethnic/racial differences in the coming-out process of lesbian, gay and bisexual youths: A comparison of sexual identity development over time". Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology. 10 (3): 215–228. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.10.3.215. PMID 15311975.
  27. ^ a b c d Bridges, SK; Selvidge, MMD; Matthews, CR (2003). "Lesbian women of color: Therapeutic issues and challenges". Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development. 31 (2): 113–130. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.2003.tb00537.x.
  28. ^ Moradi, B; Wiseman, MC; DeBlaere, C; Goodman, MB; Sarkees, A; Brewster, ME; Huang, YP (2010). "LGB of color and White individuals' perceptions of heterosexist stigma, internalized homophobia, and outness: Comparison of levels and links". The Counseling Psychologist. 38 (3): 397–424. doi:10.1177/0011000009335263. S2CID 145410115.
  29. ^ Morales, Edward S. "Ethnic minority families and minority gays and lesbians." Marriage & Family Review 14.3-4 (1989): 217-239. (Abstract)
  30. ^ The 2005 National School Climate Survey. Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (2005), pp. 59-60.
  31. ^ Elk, Ronit (July 2021). Ramalingam, Suresh S. (ed.). "The intersection of racism, discrimination, bias, and homophobia toward African American sexual minority patients with cancer within the health care system". Cancer. 127 (19). Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the American Cancer Society: 3500–3504. doi:10.1002/cncr.33627. ISSN 1097-0142. LCCN 50001289. OCLC 01553275. PMID 34287834. S2CID 236158145.
  32. ^ Desmond-Harris, Jenée. "Don Lemon: Yes, the Black Community Is Homophobic". The Root. Archived from the original on 2014-01-22. Retrieved 2014-01-21.
  33. ^ "Trayvon, Sharpton, and homophobia". Spectator. Archived from the original on 2014-01-08. Retrieved 2014-01-21.
  34. ^ Smith, Barbara (1983). Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 9780813527536. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
  35. ^ West, Cornel; Glaude, Eddie S. (2003). African American Religious Thought: An Anthology. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664224592. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
  36. ^ Dunning, Stefanie K. (2009-04-21). Queer in Black and White: Interraciality, Same Sex Desire, and Contemporary [...] - Stefanie K. Dunning. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253221094. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
  37. ^ Carbado, Devon (1999). Black Men on Race, Gender, and Sexuality: A Critical Reader. NYU Press. ISBN 9780814715536. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
  38. ^ Boykin, Keith (2012-06-05). "Why Blacks Evolved So "Quickly" on Gay Marriage". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2012-09-27.
  39. ^ Freedman, Samuel G. (2012-06-01). "Gospel Music Book Challenges Black Homophobia". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2013-09-27. Retrieved 2012-09-29.
  40. ^ "Aaron Anson: Resistant Homophobia in the Black Community". Huffington Post. 2011-10-07. Archived from the original on 2012-02-22. Retrieved 2012-09-29.
  41. ^ "Column: Homophobia In The Black Community". CBS News. 2009-02-11. Archived from the original on 2013-09-26. Retrieved 2012-09-29.
  42. ^ Bill Maxwell. "Homophobia: It's a black thing". Tampa Bay Times. Archived from the original on 2012-10-08. Retrieved 2012-09-29.
  43. ^ Haque, Fahima (2011-02-22). "Black Men: Dandyism, masculinity and homophobia - The Root DC Live". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2012-08-05. Retrieved 2012-09-29.
  44. ^ Sneed, R. (29 March 2010). Representations of Homosexuality: Black Liberation Theology and Cultural Criticism. Springer. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-230-10656-7. "The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life conducted a study concerning American attitudes toward homosexuality that seems to contradict an assumption of black hyperhomophobia. Among the whites surveyed, 50 percent held unfavorable views of gays and lesbians. Among the black people surveyed, 60 percent held unfavorable views of gays and lesbians. This does not indicate a marked difference between whites and black people concerning negative views toward gays. Rather, this statistic, derived from black respondents who claimed a Christian religious orientation, shows that black people interpret the bible as proscribing homosexual sexual behavior."
  45. ^ Kehrer, Lauron J. (2 November 2022). Queer Voices in Hip Hop: Cultures, Communities, and Contemporary Performance. University of Michigan Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-0-472-90301-6. "Early exit polls, later proven inaccurate, estimated that 70 percent of Black voters, most of who voted for President Barack Obama, also voted in favor of Prop 8, and several of the biggest media outlets in turn cited this statistic as fact. This prompted many white marriage-equality supporters, such as gay writers Dan Savage and Andrew Sullivan, to decry "Black homophobia" as the root cause of the setback to marriage equality. As Slate contributor Jamelle Bouie of points out, this scapegoating of Black voters, like Macklemore's Scapegoating of hip-hop, is part of a larger phenomenon of "invented black pathology," in which "behaviors present among other groups of Americans become pathologies when they're exhibited by blacks. Citing the report released by the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force in January 2009 that found that only 58% of African American voters supported Prop 8, Bouie noted "Prop 8 didn't win because of blacks or Latinos, it won because millions of Californians -- white as much as black or brown -- opposed same-sex marriage"
  46. ^ Meyer, Ilan H.; Northridge, Mary E. (12 March 2007). The Health of Sexual Minorities: Public Health Perspectives on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Populations. Springer. p. 339. ISBN 978-0-387-31334-4. "Although the emphasis in the literature on homophobia in the Black community might lead on to suspect that this homophobia is more prevalent there than in the White community, a closer reading shows that this is unfounded. In-depth interviews revealed that black lesbians and gay men who saw the Black community as "extremely homophobic" did not see it as any more homophobic than the White community (Loiacano, 1989)."
  47. ^ Hornsby, Alton (15 April 2008). A Companion to African American History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 430. ISBN 978-1-4051-3735-5. "however, to simply claim that Blacks are "more" homophobic than Whites or any other racial-ethnic group entirely misses the point, and produces a skewed analysis, which further demonized Blacks as having the "wrong" values or failing to keep pace in a rapidly changing society. Given the institutional barriers that have been developed and maintained in the USA to marginalize same-sex sexuality, and to limit the full participation and rights of LGBT persons, it becomes evident that homophobia is embedded in the national culture, rather than originating from a specific racial-ethnic group..."
  48. ^ Newport, Frank (24 December 2013). The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 2012. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 435. ISBN 978-1-4422-2717-0.
  49. ^ "Robin Roberts Loosens the Grip of Black Homophobia". Huffington Post. 2014-01-15. Retrieved 2014-01-20.
  50. ^ Buttaro, A. Jr.; Battle, J. (2012). "More Than Meets the Eye: An Ecological Perspective on Homophobia within the Black America". Black Women, Gender + Families. 6 (1): 16–17. doi:10.5406/blacwomegendfami.6.1.0001. S2CID 37805786.
  51. ^ Willoughby-Herard, Tiffany (5 July 2017). Challenging the Legacies of Racial Resentment: Black Health Activism, Educational Justice, and Legislative Leadership. Routledge. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-1-351-52957-0. "Yet, African-American attitudes on LGBT rights are not so simple. As Sherkat et al. have noted, while African-Americans oppose same-sex marriage rights at a higher level, they also are more supportive of certain civil rights for LGBT people than whites (Sherkat et al. 2010, Lewis 2003). While Blacks are more likely to condemn LGBT people, they are "more likely to support laws prohibiting antigay discrimination" (Lewis 2003, 76). When controlling for education and religion, blacks are also more likely to favor gay civil liberties and support gay employment rights (Lewis 2003). Explanations for the higher levels of Black opposition to same-sex marriage have focused on religion -- both religious affiliation and religiosity. Religion has been shown to be a key favor in influencing support for or opposition to same-sex marriage (Sherkat et al. 2010) In particular, affiliation with Catholicism and certain Protestant denominations are positively related to opposition to same-sex marriage. Sherkat et al. found that much of that Black-White difference in attitude is attributable to differences in religious affiliation -- specifically Blacks' rate of affiliation with Baptists and other Protestants, as well as the high levels of religious participation."
  52. ^ "Jason Collins: Black — and gay — like me". Salon. Archived from the original on 2014-01-20. Retrieved 2014-01-21.
  53. ^ "Don't Use Jason Collins As an Excuse to Blame Homophobia on Black People". Mother Jones. Archived from the original on 2014-02-18. Retrieved 2014-01-21.
  54. ^ "The New Black and Other Docs Ask, "Why Has Black Been Made the Face of Homophobia?"". The Village Voice. Archived from the original on 2014-01-26. Retrieved 2014-01-21.
  55. ^ "Crunching The Numbers On Blacks' Views On Gays". NPR. Archived from the original on 2014-01-22. Retrieved 2014-01-21.
  56. ^ "Myths About Homophobia and the Black Community". Philadelphia. Archived from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-01-21.
  57. ^ Greene, Beverly (2000). "African American Lesbians and Bisexual Women in Feminist-Psychodynamic Psychotherapies: Surviving and Thriving between a Rock and a Hard Place". Psychotherapy with African-American Women: Innovations in Psychodynamic Perspectives and Practices.
  58. ^ a b Harris, A. C. (2010). Sex, Stigma, and the Holy Ghost: The Black Church and the Construction of AIDS in New York City. Journal of African American Studies, 14(1), 21-43.
  59. ^ Lewis, Gregory B. (2003). "Black-White Differences in Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Gay Rights". Public Opinion Quarterly. 67 (1): 59–78. doi:10.1086/346009.
  60. ^ Harwood, Matthew (28 March 2008). "Obama Takes On The Black Community's Homophobia". Huffington Post. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
  61. ^ King, J.L.; Courtney Carreras (April 25, 2006). "Coming Up from the Down Low: The Journey to Acceptance, Healing and Honest Love". Three Rivers Press. p. 36. Archived from the original on August 18, 2010. Retrieved 2009-12-18.
  62. ^ Johnson, Jason (1 May 2005). "Secret gay encounters of black men could be raising women's infection rate". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 31 January 2012. Retrieved 2009-12-18.
  63. ^ Mutua, Athena (28 September 2006). Progressive Black Masculinities. Routledge. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-415-97687-9. Retrieved 2009-12-18.
  64. ^ a b Bennett, Jessica (19 May 2008). "Outing Hip-Hop". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 2009-12-19.
  65. ^ Wolitski, RJ; Jones, KT; Wasserman, JL; Smith, JC (September 10, 2006). "Self-identification as "down low" among men who have sex with men (MSM) form 12 US cities". AIDS and Behavior. 10 (5). Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: 519–29. doi:10.1007/s10461-006-9095-5. PMID 16691462. S2CID 36992684. Archived from the original on August 5, 2019. Retrieved August 5, 2019.
  66. ^ Saul M. Olyan Dorot; Martha C. Nussbaum (2 June 1998). Sexual Orientation and Human Rights in American Religious Discourse. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199761500. Retrieved 18 August 2015.
  67. ^ Margaret L. Andersen; Patricia Hill Collins (2013). Race, Class, and Gender: An Anthology. Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-111-83094-6.
  68. ^ Michelle A. Gibson; Deborah T. Meem; Jonathan Alexander (14 February 2013). Finding Out: An Introduction to LGBT Studies. SAGE. p. 312. ISBN 978-1-4522-3528-8.
  69. ^ Jim Elledge (2010). Queers in American Popular Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-313-35457-1.
  70. ^ Chism, Jonathan Langston (2013). ""The Saints Go Marching": Black Pentecostal Critical Consciousness and the Political Protest Activism of Pastors and Leaders in the Church of God in Christ in the Civil Rights Era". Pneuma. 35 (3): 424–443. doi:10.1163/15700747-12341350. ISSN 0272-0965.
  71. ^ Robert, M. L. (2007). Legacy Denied: African American Gay Men, AIDS, and the Black Church. Social Work, 52(1), 51-61.
  72. ^ Douglas, K. B., & E, R. (200). Understanding the Black Church: The Dynamics of Change. Journal of Religious Thought, 56/57(2/1), 95-113.
  73. ^ Griffin, Horace (21 April 2015). "Their Own Received Them Not: African American Lesbians and Gays in Black Churches". Theology & Sexuality. 2000 (12): 88–100. doi:10.1177/135583580000601206. S2CID 144865318.
  74. ^ Garcia, Marcelo (2018-01-28). "From Eminem to Offset, an analysis of hip-hop's history of homophobia". Highlander. Archived from the original on 2019-05-07. Retrieved 2019-05-07.
  75. ^ a b Kennedy, Gerrick D. (July 31, 2019). "Lil Nas X came out, but has hip-hop? A macho culture faces a crossroads". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 2019-08-01. Retrieved 2019-08-01. ...d one would be hard pressed to not find a gay slur embedded in the lyrics of any of the genre's most famous architects. In fact, an entire lexicon dedicated to pointing out discomfort with gay men has permeated rap lyrics. Slang such as "sus" and "No homo" and "Pause" that use queerness as a punchline have been thrown around casually for years.
  76. ^ Anderson, M. (2020, August 21). Enrollment at HBCUs: A closer look. Retrieved September 28, 2020, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/02/28/a-look-at-historically-black-colleges-and-universities-as-howard-turns-150/
  77. ^ a b Mobley, S., & Johnson, J. (2018). “No Pumps Allowed”: The “Problem” With Gender Expression and the Morehouse College “Appropriate Attire Policy.” Journal of Homosexuality, 66(7), 867–895. doi:10.1080/00918369.2018.1486063
  78. ^ a b Patton, L. (2011). Perspectives on Identity, Disclosure, and the Campus Environment Among African American Gay and Bisexual Men at One Historically Black College. Journal of College Student Development, 52(1), 77–100. doi:10.1353/csd.2011.0001
  79. ^ Wood, S. (2018, Aug 09). HBCU leaders push to make their campuses more LGBTQ-inclusive. Diverse Issues in Higher Education, 35, 8. ProQuest 2086278664
  80. ^ Brawley, Benjamin (1917). History of Morehouse College. Atlanta: Morehouse College. pp. 135–141. Benjamin Griffith Brawley.
  81. ^ Petrosino, F. (2003). Up Front: HBCUs Tackle Homophobia with Diversity Initiatives. The Crisis, 110(4), 10–11.
  82. ^ a b Lewis, M., & Ericksen, K. (2016). Improving the climate for LGBTQ students at an Historically Black University. Journal of LGBT Youth, 13(3), 249–269. doi:10.1080/19361653.2016.1185761
  83. ^ "Homophobia in Black Communities Means More Young Men Get AIDS". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 2014-01-27. Retrieved 2014-01-21.
  84. ^ Monroe, Irene (2010-12-02). "AIDS still thought of as a gay disease in black America". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 2013-10-01. Retrieved 2013-03-28.
  85. ^ Jeffries, William L.; Marks, Gary; Lauby, Jennifer; Murrill, Christopher S.; Millett, Gregorio A. (9 May 2012). "Homophobia is Associated with Sexual Behavior that Increases Risk of Acquiring and Transmitting HIV Infection Among Black Men Who Have Sex with Men". AIDS and Behavior. 17 (4): 1442–1453. doi:10.1007/s10461-012-0189-y. PMID 22569942. S2CID 7498437.
  86. ^ Miller, M. (28 February 2005). "Sexual Diversity Among Black Men Who Have Sex with Men in an Inner-City Community". Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine. 82 (supplement 1): i26–i34. doi:10.1093/jurban/jti021. PMC 3456163. PMID 15738323.
  87. ^ Arnold, Emily A.; Rebchook, Gregory M.; Kegeles, Susan M. (2 May 2014). "'Triply cursed': racism, homophobia and HIV-related stigma are barriers to regular HIV testing, treatment adherence and disclosure among young Black gay men". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 16 (6): 710–722. doi:10.1080/13691058.2014.905706. PMC 4061253. PMID 24784224.
  88. ^ "Gay Latino Americans are "coming of age"". CNN. 2009-09-23. Archived from the original on 2012-03-25. Retrieved 2012-10-01.
  89. ^ "Lilia Luciano: Operation Tolerancia: Addressing Homophobia in Latino Communities". HuffPost. 2012-10-03. Retrieved 2013-09-06. We want to believe that the 21st century Latino is accepting and open-minded, especially after years of campaigns promoting tolerance, the emergence of openly-gay role models like Ricky Martin and of educational initiatives like this summer's "Familia es Familia" encouraging Latinos to accept LGBT family members. Today we can celebrate that we have indeed made enormous strides in the matter. A Pew Hispanic Research Center poll released earlier this year shows that 59 percent of Latinos in the U.S. say homosexuality should be accepted by society, compared to 58 percent of the general public. When it comes to second-generation Latinos, 68 percent agree. Other polls show that 74 percent of Latinos support gay marriage or similar legal recognitions.
  90. ^ Bojórquez, Kim. "More Latinos are identifying as LGBTQ. Here's how some in Utah have found acceptance and community". The Salt Lake Tribune.
  91. ^ Duran, Eric (23 July 2018). "Latino millennials least likely to identify as heterosexual, survey finds". NBC News.
  92. ^ "Gay Latinos "minority twice over"". BBC. 2008-04-29. Archived from the original on 2008-05-02. Retrieved 2012-10-01.
  93. ^ "homophobia Latino Community". Daily Kos. 2011-09-16. Archived from the original on 2014-02-02. Retrieved 2012-10-01.
  94. ^ a b Acosta, Katie L.. "LESBIANAS IN THE BORDERLANDS: Shifting Identities and Imagined Communities". Gender and Society 22.5 (2008): 639–659.
  95. ^ de la tierra, tatiana. "The L Word(s) Among Us in the Library World." GLBTRT NewsletterSpring 2004: 4-5
  96. ^ De La Tierra, Tatiana. "Activist Latina Lesbian Publishing: esto no tiene nombre and conmoción." I am Aztldn: The Personal Essay in Chicano Studies, ed. Chon A. Noriega and Wendy Belcher (Los Angeles: UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center Press, 2004) 172.
  97. ^ a b Diaz and Ayala. Social Discrimination and Health: The Case of Latino Gay Men and HIV Risk. National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute (2001), p. 9.
  98. ^ Torres, Lourdes. "Becoming Visible: US Latina Lesbians Talk Back and Act Out." Counterpoints 169 (2002): 151-162.
  99. ^ de Alba, Alicia Gaspar. ""tortillerismo": Work by Chicana Lesbians". Signs 18.4 (1993): 956–963.
  100. ^ "Overt sexuality and homophobia present problems in Hispanic community". Green Heritage News. 27 November 2010. Archived from the original on 29 August 2013. Retrieved 2013-08-29.
  101. ^ ""That's Gay" and Hispanic Homophobia". dry as toast. 12 October 2011. Archived from the original on 30 March 2014. Retrieved 2013-08-29.
  102. ^ Pabon, Julio (20 September 2012). "Was it Lost In Translation? Blue Jays, Yunel Escobar Will Learn the Hard Way". Huffington Post. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
  103. ^ "Operation Tolerancia: Addressing Homophobia in Latino Communities". Huffington Post. 3 October 2012. Archived from the original on 7 March 2015. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
  104. ^ O'Donnell, Lydia; Agronick, Gail; San Doval, Alexi; Duran, Richard; Myint-U, Athi; Stueve, Ann (December 2002). "Ethnic and Gay Community Attachments and Sexual Risk Behaviors Among Urban Latino Young Men Who Have Sex With Men". AIDS Education and Prevention. 14 (6): 457–471. doi:10.1521/aeap.14.8.457.24109. PMID 12512847.
  105. ^ a b Marín, Barbara Vanoss (29 June 2016). "HIV Prevention in the Hispanic Community: Sex, Culture, and Empowerment". Journal of Transcultural Nursing. 14 (3): 186–192. doi:10.1177/1043659603014003005. PMID 12861921. S2CID 35270909.
  106. ^ Rhodes, S. D.; Yee, L. J.; Hergenrather, K. C. (18 January 2007). "A community-based rapid assessment of HIV behavioural risk disparities within a large sample of gay men in southeastern USA: A comparison of African American, Latino and white men". AIDS Care. 18 (8): 1018–1024. doi:10.1080/09540120600568731. PMID 17012094. S2CID 24667064.
  107. ^ a b Díaz, Rafael M.; Ayala, George; Bein, Edward (2004). "Sexual risk as an outcome of social oppression: Data from a probability sample of Latino gay men in three U.S. cities". Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 10 (3): 255–267. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.10.3.255. PMID 15311978.
  108. ^ Garcia, L. ""Now Why Do You Want to Know about That?": Heteronormativity, Sexism, and Racism in the Sexual (Mis)education of Latina Youth." Gender & Society 23.4 (2009): 520-41. Web. 3 Dec. 2016.
  109. ^ Herek, G. M., Ph.D., Cogan, J. C., Ph.D., Gillis, J. R., Ph.D., & Glunt, E. K. (1997). Correlates of Internalized Homophobia in a Community Sample of Lesbians and Gay Men. Journal of the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, 17-25. Retrieved September 14, 2018.
  110. ^ Zea, María Cecilia; Reisen, Carol A.; Poppen, Paul J. (1999). "Psychological well-being among Latino lesbians and gay men". Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology. 5 (4): 371–379. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.5.4.371.
  111. ^ Brooks, Ronald A.; Etzel, Mark A.; Hinojos, Ernesto; Henry, Charles L.; Perez, Mario (November 2005). "Preventing HIV Among Latino and African American Gay and Bisexual Men in a Context of HIV-Related Stigma, Discrimination, and Homophobia: Perspectives of Providers". AIDS Patient Care and STDs. 19 (11): 737–744. doi:10.1089/apc.2005.19.737. PMC 1360177. PMID 16283834.
  112. ^ Han, Ju Hui Judy (2000). "Organizing Korean Americans against Homophobia". Sojourner. Sojourner: The Women's Forum. Retrieved 2013-09-02.
  113. ^ Cheng, Patrick S. "Homophobia and the Gender Anxieties of Asian American Conservative Christian Male Pastors and Lay Leaders2 | Patrick S. Cheng". Academia.edu. Retrieved 2013-09-02.[permanent dead link]
  114. ^ "Understanding Anti-LGBT Bias: An Analysis of Chinese-Speaking Americans' Attitudes Toward LGBT People in Southern California § LGBTQ Policy Journal at the Harvard Kennedy School". Isites.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-08-31. Retrieved 2013-09-02.
  115. ^ Foo, Lora Jo (2002). Asian American Women: Issues, Concerns, and Responsive Human and Civil ... - Lora Jo Foo. Ford Foundation. ISBN 9780595301812. Archived from the original on 2016-06-29. Retrieved 2013-09-02.
  116. ^ Eng, Lily (1994-10-10). "Asians Hope Poster Gets People Thinking About Homophobia". Seattle Times. Archived from the original on 2013-10-16. Retrieved 2013-08-31.
  117. ^ "Focus on Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Persons" (PDF). National Education Association. September 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
  118. ^ Ruan, F. & Tsai, Y.(1988). Male homosexuality in contemporary Mainland China. Archives of Sexual Behavior. 17.189-199.
  119. ^ The sources Sueyoshi gives for this statement are:
  120. ^ Amy Sueyoshi, Ph.D. "History of Asian American Sexuality". Asian Pacific American History Project. Archived from the original on 21 May 2015. Retrieved 19 May 2015.
  121. ^ Han, C. (2008). A Qualitative Exploration of the Relationship Between Racism and Unsafe Sex Among Asian Pacific Islander Gay Men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37(5), 827-837.
  122. ^ Grahn, J. (1984). Another Mother Tongue. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
  123. ^ Chan, C.S.(1995) Issues of sexual identity in an ethnic minority: The case of Chinese American lesbians, gay men, and bisexual people. In A. D'Augelli & C. Patterson (Eds.), Lesbian, gay. and bisexual identities over the lifespan (pp. 87-101). New York: Oxford University Press.
  124. ^ Bridges, Sara K.; Selvidge, Mary M. D.; Matthews, Connie R. (2003). "Lesbian Women of Color: Therapeutic Issues and Challenges". Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development. 31 (2): 113–130. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.2003.tb00537.x. ISSN 2161-1912.
  125. ^ Choi, K.H., Salazar, N., Lew, S., & Coates, T.J. (1995). AIDS risk, dual identity, and community response among gay Asian and Pacific Islander men in San Francisco. In G. M. Herek & B. Green (Eds.), AIDS, identity, and community: The HIV epidemic and lesbian and gay men. V. 2. (pp. 115-134). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  126. ^ Uba, L. (1994). Asian Americans: Personality patterns, identity, and mental health. New York: The Guilford Press.
  127. ^ a b Lee, E. (1997). Chinese American families. In E. Lee (Ed.). Working with Asian Americans: A guide for clinicians (pp. 46-781). New York: The Guilford Press.
  128. ^ Wong, L.,& Mock, M. (1993). Developmental and life cycle issues of Asian Americans: Asian American young adults. Unpublished manuscript.
  129. ^ Nagata, D.K.(1989). Japanese-American children and adolescents. In J. Gibbs, L. Huang, & Associates (Eds.), Children of color (pp. 42- 60). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
  130. ^ Liu, P. & Chan, C.S.(1996). Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Asian Americans and their families. In J. Liard, & R.J. Green (Eds.). Lesbians and gavs in couples and families: A handbook for therapists (pp. 137-152). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
  131. ^ Leong, R. C. (Ed.) (1996). Asian American sexualities: Dimensions of the gay and lesbian experience. New York: Routledge.
  132. ^ Kahn, A.D.(Ed.). (1997). The many faces of gay: Activists who are changing the nation. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
  133. ^ Chan, C.S. (1989). Issues of identity development among Asian- American lesbians and gay men. Journal of Counseling and Development. 68,16-20.
  134. ^ Aoki, B. (1997). Gay and lesbian Asian Americans. In E. Lee (Ed.), Working with Asian Americans: A guide for clinicians (pp. 411- 419). New York: The Guilford Press.
  135. ^ Horn, A.Y. (1992). Family matters: A historical study of the Asian Pacific lesbian network. Unpublished master's thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, CA.
  136. ^ Szymanski, Dawn M.; Sung, Mi Ra (2013-07-01). "Asian Cultural Values, Internalized Heterosexism, and Sexual Orientation Disclosure Among Asian American Sexual Minority Persons". Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling. 7 (3): 257–273. doi:10.1080/15538605.2013.812930. ISSN 1553-8605. S2CID 144491749.
  137. ^ Ren, Zhengjia; Hood, Ralph W (2018). "Internalized Homophobia Scale for Gay Chinese Men: Conceptualization, Factor Structure, Reliability, and Associations With Hypothesized Correlates". American Journal of Men's Health. 12 (5): 1297–1306. doi:10.1177/1557988318768603. ISSN 1557-9883. PMC 6142160. PMID 29671369.
  138. ^ Dang, A., & Hu, M. (2005). Asian Pacific American lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people: A community portrait. A report from New York's Queer Asian Pacific Legacy Conference, 2004. New York, NY: National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute.
  139. ^ Han, Chong-Suk; Proctor, Kristopher; Choi, Kyung-Hee (Winter 2014). "We Pretend Like Sexuality Doesn't Exist: Managing Homophobia in Gaysian America". The Journal of Men's Studies. 22: 53–63. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.847.4811. doi:10.3149/jms.2201.53. S2CID 146462011.
  140. ^ MS, Anneliese A. Singh; PhD, Y. Barry Chung; MS, Jennifer K. Dean (2006-03-28). "Acculturation Level and Internalized Homophobia of Asian American Lesbian and Bisexual Women". Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling. 1 (2): 3–19. doi:10.1300/J462v01n02_02. ISSN 1553-8605. S2CID 142630942.
  141. ^ Han, Shinhee (2001-01-01). "Gay identity disclosure to parents by Asian American gay men /". Dissertation Abstracts International. 62.
  142. ^ Savin-Williams, R.C.(1989 a). Coming out to parents and self-esteem among gay and lesbian youth. Journal of Homosexuality._17,1-35.
  143. ^ Hetrick, E. & Martin, A.D. (1987). Homosexuality identity: Commitment, adjustment, and significant others. Sociometrv. 36, 56-79.
  144. ^ Cahill, S, Battle, J and Meyer, D (2003) Partnering, parenting, and policy: Family issues affecting Black lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people, Race and Society, 6: 85–98.
  145. ^ "Lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) people from Black and minority ethnic communities" (PDF). National Health Service (NHS). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
  146. ^ Galop (2001) The Low Down: Black lesbians, gay men and bisexual people talk about their experiences and needs, Galop, London.
  147. ^ Mays, VM and Cochran, SD (2001) Mental health correlates of perceived discrimination among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States, American Journal of Public Health, 91(11): 1869–76.
  148. ^ a b "One minority at a time: being black and gay" (PDF). Stonewall.org.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-27. Retrieved 2013-11-27.
  149. ^ Reggae star barred from Britain. "Sizzla Denied Visa". Peter Tatchell. Archived from the original on 2011-01-04. Retrieved 2013-08-31.
  150. ^ Cohen, Benjamin (2006-03-20). "Beverly Knight hits out against homophobia in black music". PinkNews.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2013-10-23. Retrieved 2013-09-02.
  151. ^ "It is not Racist to Condemn Black Homophobia". Peter Tatchell. Archived from the original on 2014-02-03. Retrieved 2014-01-20.
  152. ^ "Boycott Bounty and his music of hate". Standard. Archived from the original on 2014-02-03. Retrieved 2014-01-20.
  153. ^ Berkeley, Rob (2012-07-16). "How to tackle homophobia, sexism and racism among minority groups". London: Guardian. Archived from the original on 2013-10-23. Retrieved 2012-09-27.
  154. ^ Tania Branigan (2003-01-16). "Black anti-gay bias targeted | UK news". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 2013-08-26. Retrieved 2013-08-18.
  155. ^ "Interview with Stephen K. Amos". Entertainment. Archived from the original on 2014-02-02. Retrieved 2014-01-20.
  156. ^ McAleenan, Patrick (17 December 2014). "Homophobia taints the British Asian community". London: The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 19 December 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
  157. ^ Ravichandran, Balaji (5 July 2010). "Gay community should help south Asians". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
  158. ^ "Forced marriage". GOV.uk. UK Government. Archived from the original on 19 March 2015. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
  159. ^ Hill, Amelia; McVeigh, Karen (1 July 2010). "Gay men become victims of forced marriages". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 8 April 2015.
[edit]

Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 | Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophobia_in_ethnic_minority_communities
1 |
Download as ZWI file
Encyclosphere.org EncycloReader is supported by the EncyclosphereKSF