Isfahan or Esfahan/Espahan (Persian: اصفهان; [esfæˈhɒːn]ⓘ)[a] is a major city in the Central District of Isfahan County, Isfahan province, Iran. It is the capital of the province, the county, and the district.[6] It is located 440 kilometres (270 miles) south of Tehran.[7] The city has a population of approximately 2,220,000,[8] making it the third-most populous city in Iran, after Tehran and Mashhad, and the second-largest metropolitan area.[9]
Isfahan is located at the intersection of the two principal routes that traverse Iran, north–south and east–west. Isfahan flourished between the 9th and 18th centuries. Under the Safavid Empire, Isfahan became the capital of Iran, for the second time in its history, under Abbas the Great. The city retains much of its history. It is famous for its Persian–Muslimarchitecture, grand boulevards, covered bridges, palaces, tiled mosques, and minarets. Isfahan also has many historical buildings, monuments, paintings, and artifacts. The fame of Isfahan led to the Persian proverb Esfahān nesf-e-jahān ast (Isfahan is half (of) the world).[10]Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan is one of the largest city squares in the world, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[11]
The name Isfahan is derived from Middle PersianSpahān, which is attested by various Middle Persian seals and inscriptions, including that of the ZoroastrianmagiKartir.[12] The present-day name is the Arabicized form of Ispahan (unlike Middle Persian, but New Persian does not allow initial consonant clusters such as sp[13]).
The region is denoted by the abbreviation GD (Southern Media) on Sasanian coins. In Ptolemy's Geographia, it appears as Aspadana (Ἀσπαδανα), which translates to "place of gathering for the army". It is believed that Spahān is derived from spādānām "the armies", the Old Persian plural of spāda, from which is derived spāh (𐭮𐭯𐭠𐭧) 'army' and spahi (سپاهی, 'soldier', literally 'of the army') in Central Persian. Some of the other ancient names include Gey, Jey (old form Zi),[14] Park, and Judea.[15][16]
Human habitation in the Isfahan region can be traced back to the Palaeolithic period. Archaeologists have recently found artifacts dating back to the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron ages. During the Median rule, Isfahan became a regional centre especially from the benefits from the Zayandehrud River. It was a religiously and ethnically diverse city during the reign of Cyrus the Great and exhibited religious tolerance.
The Arabs captured Isfahan in 642 CE and made it the capital of al-Jibal province. The city further grew prosperous under the Buyid dynasty, and further under the Seljuk dynasty. With the fall of the Seljuks in 1200 CE, the city temporarily declined but regained its importance during the Safavid era (1501-1736) with the city's golden age under the rule of Abbas the Great who also moved his capital from Qazvin to Isfahan. During his reign, Turkish, Armenian, and Persian craftsmen were forcefully resettled in the city to ensure its prosperity. Later, the city also had enclaves for people of Georgian, Circassian, and Daghistani descent. The city once again declined after the Siege of Isfahan by Afghan invaders in 1722.
In the 20th century, Isfahan was resettled by many people from southern Iran: especially during the population migrations at the start of the century, and in the 1980s, following the Iran–Iraq War.
Under Median rule, a commercial entrepôt began to show signs of more sedentary urbanism, steadily growing into a noteworthy regional centre that benefited from the exceptionally fertile soil on the banks of the Zayandehrud River, in a region called Aspandana or Ispandana.
When Cyrus the Great unified Persian and Median lands into the Achaemenid Empire, the religiously and ethnically diverse city of Isfahan became an early example of the king's fabled religious tolerance. It was Cyrus who, having just taken Babylon, made an edict in 538 BCE declaring that Jews in Babylon could return to Jerusalem.[17] Later, some of the Jewish immigrants settled in Isfahan instead of returning to their homeland. The 10th-century Persian historian Ibn al-Faqih wrote:
When the Jews emigrated from Jerusalem, fleeing from Nebuchadnezzar, they carried with them a sample of the water and soil of Jerusalem. They did not settle until they reached the city of Isfahan, whose soil and water was deemed to resemble that of Jerusalem. Thereupon they settled there, cultivated the soil, raised children and grandchildren, and today the name of this settlement is Yahudia.[18]
The Parthians (247 BCE – 224 CE), continued the tradition of tolerance after the fall of the Achaemenids, fostering a Hellenistic dimension within Iranian culture and the political organization introduced by Alexander the Great's invading armies. Under the Parthians, Arsacid governors administered the provinces of the nation from Isfahan, and the city's urban development accelerated to accommodate the needs of a capital city.
Isfahan at the end of the 6th century (top), consisting of two separate areas: Sassanid Jay and Jewish Yahudia. In the 11th century (bottom), these two areas were completely merged.
The next empire to rule, the Sassanids (224–651 CE), presided over massive changes in their realm, instituting sweeping agricultural reforms and reviving Iranian culture and the Zoroastrian religion. Both the city and region were then called by the name Aspahan or Spahan. The city was governed by a group called the Espoohrans, who descended from seven noble Iranian families. Extant foundations of some Sassanid-era bridges in Isfahan suggest that the Sasanian kings were fond of ambitious urban-planning projects. While Isfahan's political importance declined during this period, many Sassanid princes would study statecraft in the city, and its military role increased. Its strategic location at the intersection of the ancient roads to Susa and Persepolis made it an ideal candidate to house a standing army, which would be ready to march against Constantinople at any moment. The words "Aspahan" and "Spahan" are derived from the Pahlavi or Middle Persian meaning 'the place of the army'.[19]
Although many theories have mentioned the origins of Isfahan, little is known of it before the rule of the Sasanian dynasty. The historical facts suggest that, in the late 4th and early 5th centuries, Queen Shushandukht, the Jewish consort of Yazdegerd I (reigned 399–420), settled a colony of Jewish immigrants in Yahudiyyeh (also spelled Yahudiya), a settlement 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) northwest of the Zoroastrian city of Gabae (its Achaemid and Parthian name; Gabai was its Sasanic name, which was shortened to Gay (Arabic 'Jay') that was located on the northern bank of the Zayanderud River (the colony's establishment was also attributed to Nebuchadrezzar, though that's less likely).[20] The gradual population decrease of Gay (Jay) and the simultaneous population increase of Yahudiyyeh and its suburbs, after the Arab conquest of Iran, resulted in the formation of the nucleus of what was to become the city of Isfahan. The words "Aspadana", "Ispadana", "Spahan", and "Sepahan", all from which the word Isfahan is derived, referred to the region in which the city was located.
Isfahan and Gay were supposedly both circular in design, which was characteristic of Parthian and Sasanian cities.[21] However, this reported Sasanian circular city of Isfahan has not yet been uncovered.[22]
When the Arabs captured Isfahan in 642 CE, they made it the capital of al-Jibal ("the Mountains") province, an area that covered much of ancient Media. Isfahan grew prosperous under the Persian Buyid (Buwayhid) dynasty, which rose to power and ruled much of Iran when the temporal authority of the Abbasid leaders waned in the 10th century. The city walls of Isfahan are thought to have been constructed during the tenth century.[23][24][25] The Turkish conqueror and founder of the Seljuq dynasty, Toghril Beg, made Isfahan the capital of his domains in the mid-11th century; but it was under his grandson Malik-Shah I (r. 1073–92) that the city grew in size and splendour.[26]
After the fall of the Seljuqs (c. 1200), Isfahan temporarily declined and was eclipsed by other Iranian cities, such as Tabriz and Qazvin. During his visit in 1327, Ibn Battuta noted that "The city of Isfahan is one of the largest and fairest of cities, but it is now in ruins for the greater part."[27]
In 1387, Isfahan surrendered to the warlord Timur. Initially treated with relative mercy, the city revolted against Timur's punitive taxes by killing the tax collectors and some of Timur's soldiers. In retribution, Timur ordered the massacre of the city residents, his soldiers killing a reported 70,000 citizens. An eye-witness counted more than 28 towers, each constructed of about 1,500 heads.[28]
Isfahan regained its importance during the Safavid period (1501–1736). The city's golden age began in 1598 when the Safavid ruler Abbas the Great (reigned 1588–1629) made it his capital and rebuilt it into one of the largest and most beautiful cities in the 17th-century world. In 1598, he moved his capital from Qazvin to the more central Isfahan. He introduced policies increasing Iranian involvement in the Silk Road trade.[29]Turkish, Armenian, and Persian craftsmen were forcefully resettled in the city to ensure its prosperity.[30] Their contributions to the economic vitality of the revitalized city supported the recovery of Safavid glory and prestige, after earlier losses to the Ottomans and Qizilbash tribes,[30] ushering in a golden age for the city, when architecture and Persian culture flourished.
As part of Abbas's forced resettlement of peoples from within his empire, as many as 300,000 Armenians (primarily from Jugha) were resettled in Isfahan during Abbas' reign.[31][32])[32] In Isfahan, he ordered the establishment of a new quarter for these resettled Armenians from Old Julfa, and thus the Armenian Quarter of Isfahan was named New Julfa (today one of the largest Armenian quarters in the world).[31][32]
Shah Abbas would also oversee a transformation of the urban pattern of Isfahan. The plans included the new, rectangular Shah Square and the linear Chahar Bagh Boulevard. Between these two focal points of Isfahan’s urban revitalization was a large garden, what is today the Hasht Behesht Gardens. The new, geometric, planned portions of Isfahan would stand out against the old city’s complex street layouts, attracting foreign emissaries and wealthy residents along the Chahar Bagh.[33] Shah Square would be adorned by 4 grand monuments on each side. Importantly to the north, a turquoise gate connected the new square to Isfahan’s Grand Bazaar and old square, while to the south, the Shah Mosque would become the new primary place of worship for city residents.[34]
In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of deportees and migrants from the Caucasus settled in the city. Following an agreement between Abbas the Great and his Georgian subject Teimuraz I of Kakheti ("Tahmuras Khan"), whereby the latter became Muslim and accepted Safavid rule in exchange for being allowed to rule as the region's wāli (governor), with his son serving as dāruḡa (prefect) of Isfahan.[35] He was accompanied by a troop of soldiers,[35] some of whom were Georgian Orthodox Christians.[35] The royal court in Isfahan had a great number of Georgian ḡolāms (military servants), as well as Georgian women.[35] Although they spoke both Persian and Turkic, their mother tongue was Georgian.[35] Now the city had enclaves of those of Georgian, Circassian, and Daghistani descent.[35] Engelbert Kaempfer, who dwelt in Safavid Iran in 1684–85, estimated their number at 20,000.[35][36]
During Abbas's reign, Isfahan became famous in Europe, and many European travellers, such as Jean Chardin, gave accounts of their visits to the city. The city's prosperity lasted until it was sacked by Afghan invaders in 1722, during a marked decline in Safavid influence. Thereafter, Isfahan experienced a decline in importance, culminating in moving the capital to Mashhad and Shiraz during the Afsharid and Zand periods, respectively, until it was finally moved to Tehran, in 1775, by Agha Mohammad Khan, the founder of the Qajar dynasty.
In the early years of the 19th century, efforts were made to preserve some of Isfahan's archeologically important buildings. The work was started by Mohammad Hossein Khan, during the reign of Fath Ali Shah.[37]
The city has had four master development programs. The first one was created in 1971 by German engineering firm that included checkered streets' design.[38][39] In the 20th century, Isfahan was resettled by many people from southern Iran. Many of these migrants came during the population migrations at the start of the century and in the 1980s following the Iran–Iraq War. During the war, 23,000 from Isfahan were killed; and there were 43,000 veterans.[40] In 1921 Telephone office were first created in Shams Abadi street.[41]
Today, Isfahan produces fine carpets, textiles, steel, handicrafts, and traditional foods, including sweets. Isfahan is noted for its production of the Isfahan rug, a type of Persian rug typically made of merino wool and silk. There are nuclear experimental reactors as well as uranium conversion facilities (UCF) for producing nuclear fuel in the environs of the city.[42] Isfahan has one of the largest steel-producing facilities in the region, as well as facilities for producing special alloys. The Mobarakeh Steel Company is the biggest steel producer in the whole of the Middle East and Northern Africa, and it is the biggest DRI producer in the world.[43] The Isfahan Steel Company was the first manufacturer of constructional steel products in Iran, and it remains the largest such company today.[44]
There is a major oil refinery and a large air-force base outside the city. HESA, Iran's most advanced aircraft manufacturing plant, is located just outside the city.[45] Isfahan is also attracting international investment.[46] Isfahan hosted the International Physics Olympiad in 2007. In 2020, the Iran-Qatar Joint Economic Commission met in the city.[47]
In 2023 two hundred Azan playing loudspeakers were installed in the city by the government.[48] The Municipality has created a tourism app Isfahanema.[49]
Distribution of drought, normal, and wet years – 1972 to 2009, Isfahan atlas
The city is located on the plain of the Zayandeh Rud (Fertile River) and the foothills of the Zagros mountain range. The nearest mountain is Mount Soffeh (Kuh-e Soffeh), just south of the city.
As of 2023 several public housing projects have been undertaken.[50]
An artificial network of canals, whose components are called madi, were built during the Safavid dynasty for channeling water from Zayandeh Roud river into different parts of the city. Designed by Sheikh Bahaï, an engineer of Shah Abbas, this network has 77 madis in the northern course, and 71 in the southern course of the Zayandeh Rud. In 1993, this centuries-old network provided 91% of agricultural water, 4% of industrial needs, and 5% of city needs.[51] 70 emergency wells were dug in 2018 to avoid water shortages.[52][53][54]
The dry Zayanderud river with Si-o-se-pol in the background, in 2018
Towns and villages around Isfahan have been hit so hard by drought and water diversion that they have emptied out and people who lived there have moved.[55][56] An anonymous journalist said that what's called drought is more often the mismanagement of water.[57][58][59] The subsidence rate is dire, and the aquifer level decreases by one meter annually.[60] As of 2020, the city had the worst air quality among major Iranian cities.[61][62][63][64]
The Damask rose cultivar Rosa 'Ispahan' is named after the city. Cows endemic to Isfahan became extinct in 2020.[65]Wagtails are often seen in farmlands and parks.[66] The mole cricket is one of the major pests of plants, especially grass roots.[67][68] Sheep and rams are symbols of Isfahan.[69] By 2023, the city's Green space was dying because of water shortage; where trees need 150 liters, only 0.7 liter of gray recycled water was available.[70] There is a program to plant Celtis australis, oak trees.[71]
Situated at 1,590 metres (5,217 ft) above sea level on the eastern side of the Zagros Mountains, Isfahan has a cold desert climate (KöppenBWk). No geological obstacles exist within 90 kilometres (56 miles) north of the city, allowing cool winds to blow from this direction. Despite its altitude, Isfahan remains hot during the summer, with maxima typically around 35 °C (95 °F). However, with low humidity and moderate temperatures at night, the climate is quite pleasant. During the winter, days are cool while nights can be very cold. Snow falls an average of 6.7 days each winter.[72] However, generally Isfahan's climate is extremely dry. Its annual precipitation of 125 millimetres (4.9 in) is only about half that of Tehran or Mashhad and only a quarter that of more exposed Kermanshah.
The Zayande River starts in the Zagros Mountains, flowing from the west through the heart of the city, then dissipates in the Gavkhouniwetland. Planting olive trees in the city is economically viable because such trees can survive water shortages.[73]
The highest recorded temperature was 43 °C (109 °F) on 11 July 2001 and the lowest recorded temperature was −19.4 °C (−3 °F) on 16 January 1996.
Climate data for Isfahan (1991–2020, records 1951-present)
Over the past decade, Isfahan's internal highway network has been undergoing a major expansion. Much care has been taken to prevent damage to valuable, historical buildings. Modern freeways connect the city to Iran's other major cities, including the capital Tehran, 400 kilometres (250 mi) to the north, and Shiraz, 200 kilometres (120 mi) to the south. Highways also service satellite cities surrounding the metropolitan area.[77]
The bridges over the Zayanderud comprise some of the finest architecture in Isfahan. The oldest is the Shahrestan Bridge, whose foundations were built during the Sasanian Empire (3rd–7th century Sassanid era); it was repaired during the Seljuk period. Further upstream is the Khaju Bridge, which Shah Abbas II built in 1650.[citation needed] It is 123 metres (404 feet) long, with 24 arches; and it also serves as a sluice gate.
Another bridge is the Choobi (Joui) Bridge, which was originally an aqueduct to supply the palace gardens on the north bank of the river. Further upstream again is the Si-o-Seh Pol or bridge of 33 arches. It was built during the reign of Shah Abbas the Great by Sheikh Baha'i and connected Isfahan with the Armenian suburb of New Julfa. It is by far the longest bridge in Isfahan at 295 m (967.85 ft).
Snapp! and Tapsi[81][82] are two of the carpooling apps in the city.[83][84]
The city has built 42 bicycle-sharing stations and 150 kilometres (93 mi) of paved bicycle paths.[85][86] As part of Iran's religious laws, women are forbidden to use the public bicycle-sharing network, as decreed by the representative of the Supreme Leader in Isfahan, Ayatollah Yousef Tabatabai Nejad, and General Attorney Ali Esfahani.[87]
The Isfahan and Suburbs Bus Company operates transit buses in the city. East-West BRT Bus Rapid Transit Line buses carry up to 120,000 passengers daily.[88]
The municipality has signed a memorandum with Khatam-al Anbiya to construct a tram network in the city.[89] The Isfahan Metro was opened on 15 October 2015. It currently consists of one north–south line with a length of 20.2 kilometres (12.6 mi), and two more lines are currently under construction, alongside three suburban rail lines.[90]
An old master of hand-printed carpets in Isfahan bazaar
In 2014, industry, mines, and commerce in Isfahan province accounted for 35% to 50% (almost $229 billion) of the Iranian Gross Domestic Product.[94][95] In 2019, Isfahan province's governorate said that tourism is the number one priority.[96]
According to Isfahan province's administrator for Department of Cooperatives, Labour, and Social Welfare, Iran has the cheapest labor workforce anywhere in the world; and this attracts foreign investors. The labor force has continually grown over the last three decades.[97][98] However, in 2018 the unemployment rate was 15%.[99]
As of September 2020, the handicrafts industry of Isfahan Province was contributing $500 million annually to the economy.[102]Isfahan Fair, a 22-hectare (54-acre) exhibition center aimed at increasing tourism, is under construction.[citation needed] The municipality has implemented internet payment software.[103][104]
Isfahan city produces 1,300 tons of salmon. More than 28% of the country's ornamental fish is supplied from Isfahan province, from 780 farms, which in 2017 farmed 65.5 million fish.[105]
Opium was produced and exported from Isfahan from 1850 until it became illegal, and was an important source of income.[106] Isfahan has a large number of aqueducts, farmers having to divert water from the river to farms by canal.[107] Niasarm is one of the largest canals.[108]
From 2012 to 2013 there were large protests by farmers against the Isfahan-Yazd water tunnel. In 2019, eastern city farmers demanded water, otherwise they would sabotage water transfer pipes.[109][110] Fruits and vegetables central market is where farmers sell their product wholesale, selling 10,000 tons a day.[111]
The industrialization of Isfahan dates from the Pahlavi period, as in all of Iran[؟], and was marked by the strong growth of the textile industry, which earned the city the nickname "Manchester of Persia".[112] There are 9,200 industrial units in the city; 40% of the Iranian textile industry is in Isfahan.[113] The Isfahan Scientific and Research Town started in 2001, to act as a mediator between government, industry, and academia in establishing a knowledge-based economy.[114] Isfahan is the third-largest medicine manufacturing hub in Iran.[115]
The Telecommunication Company of Iran and the Mobile Telecommunication Company of Iran provide 4G, 3G, broadband, and VDSL.[116][117]
Tourism logo by the Isfahan Province Chamber of commerceDetail of Ali Qapu Palace in Isfahan
In 2018–2019 some 450,000 foreign nationals visited the city. Some 110 trillion rials (over $2 billion at the official rate of 42,000 rials in 2020) have been invested in the province's tourism sector.[124]
Nazhvan Park hosts a reptile zoo with 40 aquariums.[125]
There are the Saadi water park and the Nazhvan water park for children.[126][citation needed]
There are many luxury party gardens and wedding halls.[127][128][129]
The Isfahan Healthcare city complex, built on a 300 hectares (740 acres) site near the Aqa Babaei Expressway, is intended to boost the city's medical tourism revenues.[130]
There are nine cinemas.[132] Historically, cinemas in old Isfahan were entertainment for the worker class while religious people considered cinema to be mostly an impure place and going to the cinema to be haram. During the 1979 revolution, many cinemas in Isfahan were burned down. Cinema Iran, now a ruin, was one of the oldest cinemas in the city. Great filmmakers such as Agnès Varda and Pier Paolo Pasolini shot scenes from their films in Isfahan.[133][134][135]
Sepahan has won the most league football titles among Iranian clubs (2002–03, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12 and 2014–15).[136] The Foolad Mobarakeh Sepahan handball team plays in the Iranian handball league. Sepahan has a youth women running team that became national champions in 2020.[137]
During the Pahlavi era, a large group of the Kurdish Gulbaghi tribe were moved from the north of Kurdistan province to the city of Isfahan and the cities of Kashan and Naein. Today, the Gulbaghi tribe are mostly assimilated elements in the population of these cities.[149][150]
While immigrants may reside and work in this city, in 12 surrounding communities they are denied entry.[151]
Old Isfahan city hallIsfahan city greenspace share atlas data 2020
Isfahan has a smart city program, a unified human resources administration system, and a transport system.[155][156][157][158][159]
In 2015, the comprehensive atlas of the Isfahan metropolis, an online statistical database in Farsi, was made available, to help in planning.[160][161][162]
In 2020, the municipality directly employed 6,250 people with an additional 3,000 people in 16 subsidiary organizations.[163]
There have been four development programs since 1967,[164] In 2020, the municipality created a document outlining future development programs for the city.[165]
The color theme for the city has been turquoise for some time.[166]
City waste is processed and recycled at the Isfahan Waste Complex.[171]
The Isfahan Water and Sewage Company [fa] is responsible for piping water, waterworks installation and repair, maintaining sewage equipment, supervising sewage collection, and treatment and disposal of sewage in the city.[172][173]
Twenty five fire departments provide service.[174] Twenty private security armed service contractors exist.[175]
As of June 2020, 65% of the population of Isfahan province has social security insurance.[176]
Isfahan is known as the Multiple sclerosis capital of the world due to the presence of polluting industries.[177]
In 2015, almost 15% of the people suffered from depression, from being cut off from the Zayandeh River, due to severe drought.[178] Males empowerment /rehab center of isfahan opened 2023 and a female support addiction center.[179][180][181][182][183]
The first elementary schools in the city were maktabkhanehs.[184][185][186][187] In World War II, Polish children sought refuge in the city; eight primary and technical trade schools were established. Between 1942 and 1945, approximately 2,000 children passed through, with Isfahan briefly gaining the nickname "City of Polish Children".[188][189] In 2019, there were 20 schools for trainables attended by 5,000 children.[190]
There are also more than 50 technical and vocational training centres in the province, under the administration of the Isfahan Technical and Vocational Training Organization (TVTO), that provide free, non-formal, workforce-skills training programs.[197] As of 2020, 90% of workforce-skills trainees are women.[198]
Major philosophers include Mir Damad, known for his concepts of time and nature, as well as for founding the School of Isfahan,[199] and Mir Fendereski, who was known for his examination of art and philosophy within a society.[200]
The Isfahan School of painting flourished during the Safavid era.[203][204][205]
The annual Isfahan province theatre festival takes place in the city.[206] Theater performances began in 1919 (1297 AH), and currently there are 9 active theaters.[207][208][209]
The awarding of an Isfahan annual literature prize began in 2004.[210][211]
Since 2005, November 22 is Isfahan's National Day, commemorated with various events.[212]
New Art Paradise, built in District 6 in 2019, has the biggest open-air amphitheatre in the country.[213]
Based on a statue creators' symposium in 2020, the city decided to add 11 permanent art pieces to the city's monuments.[214]
During the Qajar era, Farhang, the first newspaper publication in the city, was printed for 13 years.[228] Iran's Metropolises News Agency (IMNA), formerly called the Isfahan Municipality News Agency, is based in the city.[229]
The city centre consists of an older section centered around the Jameh Mosque, and the Safavid expansion around Naqsh-e Jahan Square, with nearby palaces, bazaars, and places of worship,[231] which is called Seeosepol.[232]
Palaces and caravanserais located in Isfahan includes Ali Qapu (Imperial Palace, early 17th century), Chehel Sotoun (Palace of Forty Columns, 1647), Hasht Behesht (Palace of Eight Paradises, 1669), Talar-e-Ashraf (Palace of Ashraf) (1650), Shah Caravanserai.
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^طرز تهیه گوشت و لوبیا، آبگوشت سنتی کاشان و اصفهان [How to prepare meat and beans, traditional broth of Kashan and Isfahan]. پارسینه (in Persian). 11 September 2020. Archived from the original on 11 December 2020. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
^ abبازار های اصفهان در دوره صفویه [Isfahan markets in the Safavid period]. Rasekhoon.net (in Persian). Archived from the original on 6 May 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
^بازار اصفهان؛ بازمانده شکوه دوران صفوی [Isfahan Bazaar: Survivor of the glory of the Safavid era]. Persian BBC News (in Persian). Archived from the original on 11 September 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
^پارک ها و مراکز تفریحی استان اصفهان + تصاویر [Parks and recreation centers of Isfahan province + pictures]. Nedaesfahan (in Persian). 18 January 2016. Archived from the original on 26 February 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2022.
^ ab'Hosseyn Yaghoubi (2004). Arash Beheshti (ed.). Rāhnamā ye Safar be Ostān e Esfāhān (Travel Guide for the Province Isfahan) (in Persian). Rouzane. p. 135. ISBN964-334-218-2.
^خواهرخوانده های اصفهان [The Adopted Sisters of Isfahan]. International Cooperation Center of Isfahan. 1 August 2022. Archived from the original on 23 July 2022. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
^"شهرهای خواهر". isfahan.ir (in Persian). Isfahan. Archived from the original on 18 June 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2020.
From Wikipedia - Reading time: 52 min
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Isfahan in 1924
Foolad Mobarakeh Steel Mill
Map of Isfahan by Pascal Coste
Media related to Canals in Isfahan at Wikimedia Commons
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Baalbek, Lebanon (2010)
Dakar, Senegal (2009)
Florence, Italy (1998)
Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany (2000)
Havana, Cuba (2001)
Iași, Romania (1999)
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (1997)
Kuwait City, Kuwait (2000)
Lahore, Pakistan (2004)
Saint Petersburg, Russia (2004)
Yerevan, Armenia (2000)
Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (1989)
Samarkand, Uzbekistan since July 2021
Porto, Portugal since July 2021
Issy-les-Moulineaux, France (2018)
Persian pottery from the city of Isfahan, 17th century
Isfahan, capital of the Kingdom of Persia
Si-o-se-pol Bridge by Cornelis de Bruijn, 1705
Isfahan to the south side, drawing by Eugène Flandin
Ali minaret, 1840, drawing by Eugène Flandin
Russian army in Isfahan in the 1890s
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