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Old Uyghurs

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Uyghurs
Old Uyghur, "𐽳𐽶𐽲𐽳𐽾"
(Uiɣur).
Soldiers from Karasahr, 8th century CE
Regions with significant populations
Eastern Asia
Languages
Old Uyghur[1]
Religion
Manichaeism (Official), Tengrism (Historical), Nestorian Christianity (Minority), Buddhism (Minority)
Related ethnic groups
Gokturks, Yenisei Kyrgyz, Toquz Oghuz, Yugurs, Partially Uyghurs[2]

Old Uyghurs also known as Qocho Uygurs or Orkhon Uyghurs (simplified Chinese: 回鹘语; traditional Chinese: 回鶻語; pinyin: Huíhú yǔ) were a Turkic people in medieval East Asia.[3] They were the first Turkic nation to create a settled civilization. Uyghurs under Qullığ Boyla rebelled and defeated their Turk overlords with the help of Basmyls and Karluks and established the Uyghur Khanate.[4]

Etymology

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Origin

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Meaning of Uyghur is contested. Old Turkic inscriptions record the word uyɣur[5] (Old Turkic: 𐰆𐰖𐰍𐰆𐰺); an example is found on the Sudzi inscription, "I am khan ata of Yaglaqar, came from the Uigur land." (Old Turkic: Uyγur jerinte Yaγlaqar qan ata keltim).[6] It is transcribed into Tang annals as 回纥 / 回紇 (Mandarin: Huíhé, but probably *[ɣuɒiɣət] in Middle Chinese).[7]

It was used as the name of one of the Turkic polities formed in Gokturk civil war (AD 630–684).[8] The Old History of the Five Dynasties records that in 788 or 809, the Chinese acceded to a Uyghur request and emended their transcription to 回鹘 / 回鶻 (Mandarin: Huíhú, but [ɣuɒiɣuət] in Middle Chinese).[9][10]

Modern academicians like to refer them as Qocho Uygurs meanwhile Japanese people often call them Xīzhōu Uyghurs (西州回鹘). During Yuan Empire they were called by different names such as Weiwu, Wei-wu, Waiwu, Guigu, Wugu, Weiwu-er.[11][12]

In modern linguistic circles Uyghur range from derivation from the verb "follow, accommodate oneself"[13] and adjective "non-rebellious" (i.e., from Turkic uy/uð-) to the verb meaning "wake, rouse or stir" (i.e., from Turkic oðğur-). None of these is thought to be satisfactory because the sound shift of /ð/ and /ḏ/ to /j/ does not appear to be in place by this time.[9]

The etymology therefore cannot be conclusively determined and its referent is also difficult to fix. The "Huihe" and "Huihu" seem to be a political rather than a tribal designation[14] or it may be one group among several others collectively known as the Toquz Oghuz.[15]

The earliest record of a Uyghur tribe appears in accounts from the Northern Wei (4th–6th century A.D.), wherein they were named 袁紇 Yuanhe (< MC ZS *ɦʉɐn-ɦət) and derived from a confederation named 高车 / 高車 (lit. "High Carts"), read as Gāochē in Mandarin Chinese but originally with the reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciation *[kɑutɕʰĭa], later known as the Tiele (铁勒 / 鐵勒, Tiělè).[16][17][18]

History

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Rise

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See also: Uyghur Khaganate
class=notpageimage|
Main polities in continental Asia circa 800.[19]

In the mid-5th century, the Uyghurs were a tribe within the Tiele confederation, which was itself under the rule of Turkic Khaganate.[20] In 657, the Tang dynasty defeated the Western Turkic Khaganate, prompting the Uyghurs to defect to the Tang dynasty. Even before

this, Uyghurs had demonstrated a willingness to ally with the Tang, having fought alongside them against both Tibetan Empire and the Turks in 627.[21][22]

Establishment of the Second Gokturk Khaganate at the sacred mountain Ötüken (於都斤山) provoked unrest among the Tiele tribes. After the Uyghur chief was killed, the Turks conscripted the Turkic Tiele tribes for annual raids across the Chinese border beginning in 694.[23] These incursions were halted in 708 when the Tang dynasty fortified the Ordos region. However, raids persisted elsewhere as Qapghan Qaghan shifted his focus westward, targeting the Türgesh and Karluk tribes between 708 and 715.

By this time, some Tiele tribes had fled into Tang territory, resettling in Lingzhou and other regions, while others—such as the Bayegu—rebelled in 707. Revolts continued until 716, culminating in Qapagan’s death. While returning from a campaign to suppress uprisings by the Uyghur, Tongluo, Baixi, Bayegu, and Pugu tribes, the khagan was ambushed and killed on July 22, 716, by a Bayegu warrior named Xiezhilue (颉质略). In conclusion, not all tribes participated in these revolts; the northernmost allies, the Guligan and Dubo (都播), remained loyal to the Turks throughout the conflicts.[24][25]

Following Qapagan Khagan’s death, Bilge Khan took over the reign, alongside with his advisor Tonyukuk the Wise, pursued a policy of reconciliation with the subjugated Tiele tribes. Tonyukuk, who was born in China, earned a reputation as a skilled statesman in both Turkic and Chinese historical records. Under their leadership, the Göktürks fostered peaceful relations with the Tang dynasty, resulting in only a single recorded raid on the Chinese border in 720 during the remainder of the Second Turkic Khaganate.

During this period, numerous Tiele tribes rebelled against local Chinese authorities and fled northward, particularly from the regions around Liangzhou, Xiazhou, Fengzhou, and Bingzhou, while minor uprisings continued intermittently.[26] Among the returning Tiele groups were the Uyghur, specifically the Yaoluoge clan, which had escaped to China until 727.[27]Yaoluoge consisted one of nine[28] clans of Uyghur, and had dominated probably for six[29] generations since the fall of Xueyantuo.

Painted silk fragments of men in armour, from a Manichaean Temple near Qocho. Turkic, 8th century or 9th century CE. Museum für Asiatische Kunst, Berlin.[30]

Following the poisoning of Bilge Khan in 734, the Göktürk Khaganate experienced internal instability as competing factions within the ruling Ashina clan vied for power. This period of succession struggles significantly weakened the central authority of the khaganate. By 742, the Uyghurs, Karluks, and Basmyls revolted against the Second Turkic Khaganate.[4]

In 744, the Basmyls occupied the Turkic capital of Ötüken and killed the reigning Özmiş Khagan. Later that same year, an alliance of Uyghurs and Karluks turned against the Basmyls, defeating them and killing their khagan, effectively erasing the influence of Basmyls. Later on, the conflict between the Uyghurs and Karluks forced the Karluks to migrate westward into Jetisu, where they clashed with and eventually conquered the Türgesh in 766.[31]

The Uyghur khagan, Qullığ Boyla (Chinese: 骨力裴羅) who was son of Hushu (护输), assumed the title Kutlug Bilge Kol Khagan ("Glorious, Wise, and Mighty Khagan"), proclaiming himself the supreme ruler of all tribes. He established his capital at Ordu-Baliq. According to Chinese historical records, the Uyghur Empire's territory extended "to the Shiwei in the east, the Altai Mountains in the west, and the Gobi Desert in the south, encompassing the entire domain of the ancient Xiongnu."[32] In 745, Uyghurs killed the last Turk khagan, Kulun Beg (Chinese: 白眉可汗 鶻隴匐), and sent his head to the Tang court as a demonstration of their dominance.[33]

The name "Tiele" and its associated designation as the "Nine Allies" (九姓, Jiǔxìng) or Toquz Oghuz (based on the interpretation of scholar Cen Zhongmian in the late 1950s) gradually disappeared from historical records, being replaced by the term "Huihu" (Uyghur). From then on the Uyghur consisted of seven[34] former Tiele tribes and two[35][36] new tribes, while eight[37] former Tiele tribal names had now disappeared.[38]

References

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  1. ^ Sinor, D. (1998), "Chapter 13 – Language situation and scripts", in Asimov, M.S.; Bosworth, C.E. (eds.), History of Civilisations of Central Asia, vol. 4 part II, UNESCO Publishing, p. 333, ISBN 81-208-1596-3
  2. ^ James A. Millward & Peter C. Perdue (2004). "Chapter 2: Political and Cultural History of the Xinjiang Region through the Late Nineteenth Century". In S. Frederick Starr (ed.). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. M. E. Sharpe. pp. 40–41. ISBN 978-0-7656-1318-9. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
  3. ^ Benson 1998, p. 16–19.
  4. ^ a b Sinor 1990, p. 317–342.
  5. ^ Russell-Smith 2005, p. 33.
  6. ^ Sudzi inscription, text at Türik Bitig
  7. ^ Mackerras 1968, p. 224.
  8. ^ Güzel 2002.
  9. ^ a b Golden 1992, p. 155.
  10. ^ Jiu Wudaishi, "vol. 138: Huihu" quote: "回鶻，其先匈奴之種也。後魏時，號爲鐵勒，亦名回紇。唐元和四年，本國可汗遣使上言，改爲回鶻，義取迴旋搏擊，如鶻之迅捷也。" translation: "Huihu, their ancestors had been a kind of Xiongnu. In Later Wei time, they were also called Tiele, and also named Huihe. In the fourth year of Tang dynasty's Yuanhe era [809 CE], their country's Qaghan sent envoys and requested [the name be] changed to Huihu, whose meaning is taken from a strike-and-return action, like a swift and rapid falcon."
  11. ^ Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah (2009), "Uyghur", Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World, Elsevier, p. 1143, ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7.
  12. ^ Hahn 1998, p. 379
  13. ^ "Uighur, n. and adj.", Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press
  14. ^ Hakan Özoğlu, p. 16.
  15. ^ Russell-Smith 2005, p. 32.
  16. ^ Weishu "vol. 103 section Gāochē" text: 高車，蓋古赤狄之餘種也，初號為狄歷，北方以為勑勒，諸夏以為高車、丁零。其語略與匈奴同而時有小異，或云其先匈奴之甥也。其種有狄氏、袁紇氏、斛律氏、解批氏、護骨氏、異奇斤氏。 transl. "Gaoche, probably remnant stocks of the ancient Red Di. Initially they had been called Dili, in the North they are considered Chile, the various Xia (i.e. Chinese) consider them Gaoche Dingling / Dingling with High-Carts. Their language and the Xiongnu's are similar though there are small differences. Or one may say they were sons-in-law / sororal nephews of their Xiongnu predecessors. Their tribes are Di, Yuanhe, Hulu, Jiepi, Hugu, Yiqijin."
  17. ^ Theobald, Ulrich. (2012) "Huihe 回紇, Huihu 回鶻, Weiwur 維吾爾, Uyghurs" ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art
  18. ^ Mair 2006, pp. 137–8.
  19. ^ Haywood, John (1997). Atlas of world history. New York : Barnes & Noble Books. p. Map 40. ISBN 978-0-7607-0687-9.
  20. ^ Chapter 195, Huihe. See wikisource
  21. ^ Latourette 1964, p. 144.
  22. ^ Haywood 1998, p. 3.2.
  23. ^ Duan, "Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele", p. 434, 505–509.
  24. ^ Duan, "Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele", p. 509–511, 515.
  25. ^ Bo Yang, "Zizhi Tongjian", p. 12,852 (Vol.50).
  26. ^ Duan, "Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele", p. 532–539.
  27. ^ 1. Huduoge (胡咄葛) 2. Guluowu (啒罗勿) 3. Mogexiqi (貊歌息讫) 4. A-Wudi (阿勿嘀) 5. Gesa (葛萨) 6. Huwasu (斛嗢素) 7. Yaoluoge (药罗葛) 8. Xiyawu (奚牙勿) 9. Yaowuge (药勿葛).
  28. ^ 1. Huduoge (胡咄葛) 2. Guluowu (啒罗勿) 3. Mogexiqi (貊歌息讫) 4. A-Wudi (阿勿嘀) 5. Gesa (葛萨) 6. Huwasu (斛嗢素) 7. Yaoluoge (药罗葛) 8. Xiyawu (奚牙勿) 9. Yaowuge (药勿葛).
  29. ^ Chief names, Tumidu (吐迷度)－Porun (婆闰)－Bisudu (比粟毒)－Dujiezhi (独解支)－Fudipu (伏帝匍)－Chengzong (承宗).
  30. ^ SKUPNIEWICZ, Patryk (Siedlce University, Poland) (2017). Crowns, hats, turbans and helmets.The headgear in Iranian history volume I: Pre-Islamic Period. Siedlce-Tehran: K. Maksymiuk & G. Karamian. p. 253.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ Sinor 1990, p. 349.
  32. ^ "Chapter 217 part 1". 新唐書 [New Book of Tang]. 東極室韋，西金山，南控大漠，盡得古匈奴地。
  33. ^ Barfield 1989, p. 151.
  34. ^ 1. Huihe (回纥) 2. Pugu (仆骨) 3. Hun (浑) 4. Bayegu (拔野古) 5. Tongluo (同罗) 6. Sijie (思结) 7. Qibi (契苾).
  35. ^ 1. A-Busi (阿布思, related to Sijie) 2. Gulunwugu[si] (骨倫屋骨[思]).
  36. ^ Theobald, U. "Huihe 回紇, Huihu 回鶻, Weiwur 維吾爾, Uyghurs" in ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art
  37. ^ 1. Xueyantuo (薛延陀) 2. Guligan (骨利干) 3. Dubo (都播) 4. Duolange (多览葛) 5. Xijie (奚结) 6. Baixi (白霫) 7. A-Die (阿跌) 8. Huxue (斛薛).
  38. ^ Duan, "Dingling, Gaoju and Tiele", p. 53, 542–547.
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