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Outline of lichens

From Wikipedia - Reading time: 26 min

An intricately branched, pale green lichen hangs from a branch.
Usnea filipendula – one of about 20,000 described species of lichen

The following outline provides an overview of and topical guide to lichens.

Lichencomposite organism made up of multiple species – a fungal partner, one or more photosynthetic partners, which can be either green algae or cyanobacteria, and, in at least 52 genera of lichens, a yeast.[1] In American English, "lichen" is pronounced the same as the verb "liken" (/ˈlkən/). In British English, both this pronunciation and one rhyming with "kitchen" (/ˈlɪən/) are used.[2]

What type of thing is a lichen?

[edit]

A lichen can be described as all of the following:

  • Composite organism – a symbiotic life form composed of multiple partners from different biological domains, families and kingdoms, and from different phyla, classes and divisions within those domains and kingdoms. In the case of lichens, a fungal partner (the mycobiont) combines with one or more photosynthetic partner(s) (the photobiont) as well as (in some cases) a yeast.
  • Eukaryote (domain) – organisms with a cell nucleus within a nuclear envelope; both the mycobiont and any algal partners fall into this domain.[3]
  • Fungi (kingdom) – the fungal partner and any yeast partner fall into this kingdom.[1]
  • For the biological classes and families these fungi belong to, see below.
  • Prokaryote (domain) – organisms without a cell nucleus; any cyanobacterial partner falls into this domain.[3]

Nature of lichens

[edit]
Section labeled "a" is grey, dotted with hundreds of small white circles. Section labeled "b" has grey strands surrounding numerous green circles. Section labeled "c" has loosely tangled grey strands with much open space between them. Section labeled "d" mirrors section labeled "a". In the section labeled "e", the structure in section "d" descends to two points - again grey with many white circles
Schematic cross section of foliose lichen:
(a) The cortex is the outer layer of tightly woven fungal filaments (hyphae)
(b) This photobiont layer has photosynthesizing green algae
(c) Loosely packed hyphae in the medulla
(d) A tightly woven lower cortex
(e) Anchoring hyphae called rhizines, where the fungus attaches to the substrate

Morphology

[edit]
  • Apoplast – the symbiotic interface zone between the mycobiont and photobiont, outside the cell membranes or walls of both.[8]
  • Haustorium (pl. haustoria) – a root-like structure which allows the fungal partner to extract nutrients from its photosynthetic partner(s).[9]
  • Lichen morphology – a lichen's external appearance and structures are very different than those of its individual partners.[10]
  • Ascocarp – the fruiting body of a lichen, which contains the asci.[11]
  • Ascus (pl. asci) – a sexual, fungal spore-bearing structure, typically sac-like in shape.[12]
  • Ascospore – a fungal spore, the product of meiosis, produced in an ascus.[13]
  • Epispore – a transparent bag-like outer covering on some spores,[9] which helps to determine spore shape.[14]
  • Cephalodium (pl. cephalodia) – a gall-like structure that contains cyanobacteria[15]
  • Hypha (pl. hyphae) – a long, branching, thread-like structure composed of one or more fungal cells, which typically makes up a large part of lichens; hyphae are densely compacted in the cortex and more loosely interwoven in the medulla.[16]
  • Pycnidium (pl. pycnidia) – a flask-shaped, asexual fruiting body possessed by some lichens.[17]
  • Conidium (pl. conidia) – an asexual fungal spore produced in pycnidia by some lichens.[18]
  • Rhizine – a root-like structure that anchors a lichen to the substrate on which it grows.[19]
  • Soralium (pl. soralia) – a localized region or structure, typically a crack or pore, containing soredium.[20]
  • Soredium (pl. soredia) – asexual reproductive propagules composed of loose clumps of fungal hyphae and photobiont cells, produced in soralia.[20]
  • Thallus (pl. thalli) – the vegetative body of a lichen, made up of both mycobiont and photobiont components.[21]
  • Cortex – the lichen's outer layer(s), made up of tightly woven fungal filaments.[22]
  • Isidium (pl. isidia) – outgrowths of the thallus which contain photobiont cells and provide means of vegetative reproduction for some lichens.[23]
  • Medulla – a loose layer of interwoven fungal hyphae within the thallus.[24]
  • Podetium (pl. podetia) – an upright secondary thallus, which supports the fruiting bodies of Cladonia species.[25]

Ecology

[edit]
A leafy, dark bronze lichen with wavy, white-tipped edges on a piece of bark
Lichens with a cyanobacteria as the photosynthetic partner, like this Peltigera collina, can fix nitrogen.[26]

Types of lichens

[edit]

Lichen lists

[edit]

Lichen taxonomical classifications

[edit]
Several small brown balls rest atop black stalks rising from a bit of wood.
Chaenotheca brunneola falls into Coniocybomycetes, a small fungal class which contains only a handful of lichen species.[34]

Lichen systematics – Although they are composite organisms, lichens have traditionally been classified on the basis of their fungal partner. These span eight different biological classes, 39 orders, 117 families, and around 1,000 genera.[34][35]

Classes

[edit]

Lichens fall into eight fungal classes and several subclasses:[38]

Orders

[edit]
A thick branch covered with a white crust, marked by black spots and thin black lines.
Lecidella elaeochroma is a member of Lecanorales, the fungal order which contains the greatest number of lichen species.[38]

They are split across nearly 40 orders. Those which cannot be assigned to a particular order are assigned instead to "incertae sedis" within the appropriate class. These orders were listed in Lücking, Hodkinson and Leavitt's 2016 treatise on the classification of lichenized fungi, except where otherwise noted,[38] with orders updated in 2021.[34]

Families

[edit]

They fall into 117 families. Those which cannot be assigned to a particular family are assigned instead to "incertae sedis" within the appropriate order. These were listed in Lücking, Hodkinson and Leavitt's 2016 treatise on the classification of lichenized fungi, except where otherwise noted;[35] families were updated in 2021.[34]

  1. Acarosporaceae
  2. Agyriaceae
  3. Andreiomycetaceae
  4. Aphanopsidaceae
  5. Arctomiaceae
  6. Arthoniaceae
  7. Arthrorhaphidaceae
  8. Atheliaceae
  9. Baeomycetaceae
  10. Biatorellaceae
  11. Brigantiaeaceae
  12. Caliciaceae
  13. Cameroniaceae
  14. Candelariaceae
  15. Carbonicolaceae
  16. Catillariaceae
  17. Celotheliaceae
  18. Chrysotrichaceae
  19. Cladoniaceae
  20. Clavulinaceae
  21. Coccocarpiaceae
  22. Coccotremataceae
  23. Coenogoniaceae
  24. Collemataceae
  25. Coniocybaceae
  26. Corticiaceae
  27. Cystocoleaceae
  28. Dacampiaceae
  29. Dactylosporaceae
  30. Elixiaceae
  31. Fuscideaceae[41]
  32. Gloeoheppiaceae
  33. Gomphillaceae
  34. Graphidaceae
  35. Gyalectaceae
  36. Gypsoplacaceae
  37. Haematommataceae
  38. Harpidiaceae[42]
  39. Helocarpaceae
  40. Hygrophoraceae
  41. Hymeneliaceae
  42. Icmadophilaceae
  43. Koerberiaceae
  44. Lecanographaceae
  45. Lecanoraceae
  46. Lecideaceae
  47. Lepidostromataceae
  48. Leprocaulaceae
  49. Letrouitiaceae
  50. Lichinaceae
  51. Lopadiaceae
  52. Lyrommataceae
  53. Malmideaceae
  54. Massalongiaceae
  55. Megalariaceae
  56. Megalosporaceae
  57. Megasporaceae
  58. Melaspileaceae
  59. Microtheliopsidaceae
  60. Monoblastiaceae
  61. Mycoporaceae
  62. Nephromataceae
  63. Ochrolechiaceae
  64. Opegraphaceae
  65. Ophioparmaceae
  66. Pachyascaceae
  67. Pannariaceae
  68. Parmeliaceae
  69. Peltigeraceae
  70. Peltulaceae
  71. Pertusariaceae
  72. Phaneromycetaceae[41][43]
  73. Phlyctidaceae
  74. Physciaceae
  75. Pilocarpaceae
  76. Placynthiaceae
  77. Porinaceae
  78. Protothelenellaceae
  79. Psilolechiaceae
  80. Psoraceae
  81. Pycnoraceae
  82. Pyrenotrichaceae
  83. Pyrenulaceae
  84. Ramalinaceae
  85. Ramboldiaceae
  86. Redonographaceae[41]
  87. Requienellaceae
  88. Rhizocarpaceae
  89. Roccellaceae
  90. Roccellographaceae
  91. Ropalosporaceae
  92. Sagiolechiaceae
  93. Sarrameanaceae
  94. Schaereriaceae
  95. Scoliciosporaceae
  96. Sphaerophoraceae
  97. Sporastatiaceae
  98. Stereocaulaceae
  99. Stictidaceae
  100. Strangosporaceae
  101. Strigulaceae
  102. Teloschistaceae
  103. Tenuitholiascaceae[44][45]
  104. Tephromelataceae
  105. Thelenellaceae
  106. Thelocarpaceae
  107. Thrombiaceae
  108. Trapeliaceae
  109. Trichosphaeriaceae[42]
  110. Trypetheliaceae
  111. Umbilicariaceae
  112. Vahliellaceae
  113. Varicellariaceae
  114. Verrucariaceae
  115. Vezdaeaceae
  116. Xanthopyreniaceae
  117. Xylographaceae

Genera

[edit]

Extant lichens are found in more than 1000 genera. These were listed in Lücking, Hodkinson and Leavitt's 2016 treatise on the classification of lichenized fungi, except where otherwise noted.[35]

  1. Absconditella
  2. Acantholichen
  3. Acanthothecis
  4. Acanthotrema
  5. Acarospora
  6. Acarosporina
  7. Aciculopsora
  8. Acolium
  9. Acrocordia
  10. Acroscyphus
  11. Actinoplaca
  12. Adelolecia
  13. Aderkomyces
  14. Aggregatorygma
  15. Agonimia
  16. Ahtiana
  17. Ainoa
  18. Albemarlea[46]
  19. Alectoria
  20. Allantoparmelia
  21. Allocalicium
  22. Allocetraria
  23. Allographa[47]
  24. Allophoron[42]
  25. Alyxoria
  26. Amandinea
  27. Amazonomyces
  28. Amazonotrema
  29. Ameliella
  30. Amphorothecium
  31. Ampliotrema
  32. Amundsenia
  33. Amygdalaria
  34. Amylora
  35. Anamylopsora
  36. Anaptychia
  37. Ancistrosporella
  38. Andina[48]
  39. Andreiomyces
  40. Anema
  41. Angiactis
  42. Anisomeridium
  43. Anomalographis
  44. Anomomorpha
  45. Antennulariella
  46. Anthracocarpon
  47. Anthracothecium
  48. Anzia
  49. Anzina
  50. Apatoplaca
  51. Aphanopsis
  52. Aplanocalenia
  53. Aptrootia
  54. Aquacidia[49]
  55. Architrypethelium
  56. Arctocetraria
  57. Arctomia
  58. Arctoparmelia
  59. Argopsis
  60. Aridoplaca[50]
  61. Arrhenia
  62. Arthonia (list)
  63. Arthopyrenia
  64. Arthotheliopsis
  65. Arthothelium
  66. Arthrorhaphis
  67. Arthrosporum
  68. Asahinea
  69. Aspicilia
  70. Aspiciliopsis
  71. Aspidothelium
  72. Aspilidea
  73. Asteristion
  74. Asteroporum
  75. Asterothyrium
  76. Astrochapsa
  77. Astrothelium
  78. Athallia
  79. Athelopsis
  80. Atla
  81. Atrophysma[51]
  82. Aulaxina
  83. Auriculora
  84. Australiaena
  85. Australidea[52]
  86. Austrella
  87. Austrographa
  88. Austrolecia
  89. Austromelanelixia[53][54]
  90. Austroparmelina
  91. Austropeltum
  92. Austroplaca
  93. Austroroccella
  94. Austrotrema
  95. Awasthia
  96. Awasthiella
  97. Bacidia
  98. Bacidina
  99. Bacidiopsora
  100. Bactrospora
  101. Baculifera
  102. Badimia
  103. Badimiella
  104. Baeomyces
  105. Baflavia
  106. Bagliettoa
  107. Bahianora
  108. Baidera[55]
  109. Bapalmuia
  110. Bartlettiella
  111. Barubria
  112. Bathelium
  113. Bellemerea
  114. Biatora
  115. Biatorella
  116. Biatoridium
  117. Bibbya[56]
  118. Bilimbia
  119. Blastenia
  120. Blastodesmia
  121. Blennothallia
  122. Bogoriella
  123. Boreoplaca
  124. Borinquenotrema
  125. Botryolepraria
  126. Bouvetiella
  127. Brasilicia
  128. Brianaria
  129. Brigantiaea
  130. Brodoa
  131. Brownliella
  132. Bryobilimbia
  133. Bryocaulon
  134. Bryodina
  135. Bryogomphus
  136. Bryonora
  137. Bryoplaca
  138. Bryoria
  139. Bryostigma
  140. Buellia (list)
  141. Buelliastrum
  142. Bulbothrix
  143. Bunodophoron
  144. Burrowsia[57]
  145. Byssolecania
  146. Byssoloma
  147. Byssotrema
  148. Caeruleum
  149. Calathaspis
  150. Calenia
  151. Caleniopsis
  152. Calicium
  153. Callome
  154. Calogaya
  155. Calopadia
  156. Calopadiopsis
  157. Caloplaca (list)
  158. Calotrichopsis
  159. Calvitimela
  160. Calycidium
  161. Cameronia
  162. Candelaria
  163. Candelariella
  164. Candelina
  165. Canoparmelia
  166. Caprettia
  167. Carassea
  168. Carbacanthographis
  169. Carbonicola
  170. Catapyrenium
  171. Catarrhospora
  172. Catarraphia
  173. Catenarina
  174. Catillaria
  175. Catillochroma
  176. Catinaria
  177. Catolechia
  178. Cecidonia
  179. Celothelium
  180. Cenozosia
  181. Cephalophysis
  182. Cerothallia
  183. Cetradonia
  184. Cetraria
  185. Cetrariella
  186. Cetrelia
  187. Cetreliopsis
  188. Chaenotheca
  189. Chapsa
  190. Charcotiana
  191. Cheiromycina
  192. Chiodecton
  193. Chrismofulvea
  194. Chromatochlamys
  195. Chroodiscus
  196. Chrysothrix
  197. Cinnabaria[58]
  198. Ciposia
  199. Circinaria
  200. Cladia
  201. Cladidium
  202. Claurouxia
  203. Cladonia (list)
  204. Clandestinotrema
  205. Clathroporina
  206. Clauzadea
  207. Clauzadeana
  208. Clauzadella
  209. Clavascidium
  210. Cliostomum
  211. Clypeopyrenis
  212. Coccocarpia
  213. Coccotrema
  214. Coelopogon
  215. Coenogonium
  216. Collema
  217. Collemopsidium
  218. Combea
  219. Compositrema
  220. Compsocladium
  221. Coniangium
  222. Coniarthonia
  223. Coniocarpon
  224. Conotremopsis
  225. Constrictolumina
  226. Coppinsia
  227. Coppinsidea[59]
  228. Cora
  229. Corella
  230. Coronoplectrum
  231. Cornicularia
  232. Corticorygma
  233. Coscinocladium
  234. Cratiria
  235. Creographa
  236. Crespoa
  237. Cresponea
  238. Cresporhaphis[42]
  239. Crocellina
  240. Crocodia
  241. Crocynia
  242. Cruentotrema
  243. Crustospathula
  244. Crutarndina
  245. Cryptodiscus
  246. Crypthonia
  247. Cryptophaea
  248. Cryptothecia
  249. Cryptothele
  250. Culbersonia
  251. Cyanoporina
  252. Cyphelium
  253. Cyphellostereum
  254. Cystocoleus
  255. Dacampia
  256. Dactylina
  257. Davidgallowaya
  258. Degelia
  259. Dendriscosticta
  260. Dendrographa
  261. Dermatiscum
  262. Dermatocarpon
  263. Dermiscellum
  264. Diaphorographis
  265. Dibaeis
  266. Dichosporidium
  267. Dictyocatenulata
  268. Dictyographa
  269. Dictyomeridium
  270. Dictyonema
  271. Digitothyrea
  272. Dijigiella[60][61]
  273. Dimelaena
  274. Dimidiographa
  275. Diorygma
  276. Diploicia
  277. Diploschistella
  278. Diploschistes
  279. Diplotomma
  280. Dirinaria
  281. Dirina
  282. Dirinastrum
  283. Diromma
  284. Distopyrenis
  285. Dolichocarpus
  286. Dolichousnea[62][54]
  287. Ducatina[63][64]
  288. Dufourea
  289. Dyplolabia
  290. Echidnocymbium
  291. Echinoplaca
  292. Edrudia
  293. Edwardiella
  294. Eiglera
  295. Eilifdahlia
  296. Elixia
  297. Elixjohnia[65][61]
  298. Emmanuelia[66]
  299. Emodomelanelia
  300. Encephalographa
  301. Enchylium
  302. Endocarpon
  303. Endocena
  304. Endohyalina
  305. Enterodictyon
  306. Enterographa
  307. Epilichen
  308. Enigmotrema
  309. Eopyrenula
  310. Ephebe
  311. Eremastrella
  312. Eremithallus
  313. Eremothecella
  314. Erinacellus
  315. Erioderma
  316. Ertzia
  317. Erythrodecton
  318. Eschatogonia
  319. Esslingeriana
  320. Eugeniella
  321. Eumitria[62][54]
  322. Euopsis
  323. Evernia
  324. Everniopsis
  325. Farnoldia
  326. Fauriea
  327. Feigeana
  328. Felipes
  329. Fellhanera
  330. Fellhaneropsis
  331. Ferraroa
  332. Fibrillithecis
  333. Filsoniana
  334. Finkia
  335. Fissurina
  336. Flabelloporina[67]
  337. Flakea
  338. Flavobathelium
  339. Flavocetraria
  340. Flavoparmelia
  341. Flavoplaca
  342. Flavopunctelia
  343. Fluctua
  344. Follmannia
  345. Follmanniella
  346. Fominiella[68]
  347. Fouragea
  348. Franwilsia
  349. Frigidopyrenia
  350. Frutidella
  351. Fulgidea
  352. Fulvophyton
  353. Fuscidea
  354. Fuscoderma
  355. Fuscopannaria
  356. Gabura[42]
  357. Gassicurtia
  358. Gibbosporina
  359. Gintarasia
  360. Gintarasiella[69]
  361. Glaucotrema
  362. Gloeheppia
  363. Glomerilla
  364. Glomerulophoron
  365. Glyphis
  366. Glypholecia
  367. Glyphopeltis
  368. Glyphopsis
  369. Gomphillus
  370. Gondwania
  371. Gorgadesia
  372. Gossypiothallon
  373. Gowardia
  374. Granulopyrenis
  375. Graphidastra
  376. Graphis
  377. Gregorella
  378. Gudelia
  379. Gyalecta
  380. Gyalectaria
  381. Gyalectidium
  382. Gyalidea
  383. Gyalideopsis
  384. Gyalolechia
  385. Gymnoderma
  386. Gymnographa
  387. Gymnographopsis
  388. Gyrocollema
  389. Gyrographa
  390. Gyronactis
  391. Gyrotrema
  392. Haematomma
  393. Halecania
  394. Halegrapha
  395. Halographis
  396. Haloplaca
  397. Hanstrassia[70]
  398. Haplodina
  399. Haploloma
  400. Harpidium
  401. Harusavskia[71]
  402. Heiomasia
  403. Helicobolomyces[72][73]
  404. Helminthocarpon
  405. Helocarpon
  406. Hemithecium
  407. Henrica
  408. Heppia
  409. Heppsora
  410. Herpothallon
  411. Hertella
  412. Herteliana
  413. Hertelidea
  414. Heterocarpon
  415. Heterocyphelium
  416. Heterodermia
  417. Heteromyces
  418. Heteroplacidium
  419. Himantormia
  420. Hippocrepidea
  421. Homothecium
  422. Hormosphaeria
  423. Hosseusia
  424. Hosseusiella[74]
  425. Huea
  426. Hueidea
  427. Huneckia
  428. Hydropunctaria
  429. Hymenelia
  430. Hyperphyscia
  431. Hypocenomyce
  432. Hypoflavia
  433. Hypogymnia
  434. Hypotrachyna
  435. Icmadophila
  436. Igneoplaca
  437. Ikaeria[75]
  438. Immersaria
  439. Imshaugia
  440. Ingaderia
  441. Ingvariella
  442. Inoderma
  443. Involucropyrenium
  444. Ionaspis
  445. Ioplaca
  446. Isalonactis
  447. Jamesiella
  448. Japewia
  449. Japewiella
  450. Jarmania
  451. Jasonhuria
  452. Jenmania
  453. Joergensenia
  454. Josefpoeltia
  455. Julella[42]
  456. Kaernefeltia
  457. Kaernefia
  458. Kalbiana
  459. Kalbionora[76][77]
  460. Kalbographa
  461. Kashiwadia
  462. Kantvilasia
  463. Klauskalbia[78]
  464. Knightiella[42]
  465. Koerberia
  466. Koerberiella
  467. Krogia
  468. Kroswia
  469. Kuettlingeria
  470. Kurokawia[79]
  471. Labyrintha
  472. Lambiella
  473. Lasallia
  474. Lasioloma
  475. Lathagrium
  476. Lazarenkoella
  477. Lecanactis
  478. Lecania
  479. Lecanographa
  480. Lecanora (list)
  481. Lecidea (list)
  482. Lecidella
  483. Lecidoma
  484. Lecidopyrenopsis
  485. Leciophysma
  486. Leifidium
  487. Leightoniella
  488. Leimonis
  489. Leioderma
  490. Leiorreuma
  491. Lemmopsis
  492. Lempholemma
  493. Lendemeriella
  494. Lepidocollema
  495. Lepidostroma
  496. Lepra
  497. Leprantha
  498. Lepraria
  499. Leprocaulon
  500. Leprocollema
  501. Leproplaca
  502. Leptochidium
  503. Leptogidium
  504. Leptogium
  505. Leptorhaphis
  506. Leptotrema
  507. Letharia
  508. Lethariella
  509. Letrouitia
  510. Leucodecton
  511. Leucodermia
  512. Lichenomphalia
  513. Lichina
  514. Lichinella
  515. Lichinodium
  516. Lignoscripta
  517. Lithoglypha
  518. Lithographa
  519. Lithogyalideopsis
  520. Lithothelium
  521. Llimonaea
  522. Lobaria
  523. Lobariella
  524. Lobarina
  525. Lobothallia
  526. Loekoesia
  527. Loflammia
  528. Loflammiopsis
  529. Logilvia
  530. Lopacidia
  531. Lopadium
  532. Lopezaria
  533. Loxospora
  534. Loxosporopsis
  535. Lueckingia
  536. Lyromma
  537. Magmopsis
  538. Malcolmiella
  539. Malmidea
  540. Malmographina
  541. Mangoldia
  542. Marcelaria
  543. Marchandiomphalina
  544. Marchantiana
  545. Marfloraea
  546. Maronea
  547. Maronella
  548. Maronina[62][80]
  549. Masonhalea
  550. Massalongia
  551. Mastodia
  552. Mawsonia
  553. Mazaediothecium
  554. Mazosia
  555. Megalaria
  556. Megaloblastenia
  557. Megalospora
  558. Megalotremis
  559. Megaspora
  560. Melanelia
  561. Melanelixia
  562. Melanohalea
  563. Melanolecia
  564. Melanophloea
  565. Melanotopelia
  566. Melanotrema
  567. Melarthonis
  568. Melaspilea
  569. Menegazzia (list)
  570. Meridianelia
  571. Metamelanea
  572. Metus
  573. Micarea
  574. Microtheliopsis
  575. Milospium
  576. Miltidea
  577. Minksia
  578. Miriquidica
  579. Mischoblastia
  580. Mobergia
  581. Monerolechia
  582. Monoblastia
  583. Montanelia
  584. Moriola
  585. Multiclavula
  586. Multisporidea[81]
  587. Mycobilimbia
  588. Mycoblastus
  589. Mycoporum
  590. Myelochroa
  591. Myeloconis
  592. Myelorrhiza
  593. Myriolecis
  594. Myrionora
  595. Myriospora
  596. Myriostigma
  597. Myochroidea
  598. Nadvornikia
  599. Nebularia
  600. Neobrownliella[82]
  601. Neocatapyrenium
  602. Neophyllis
  603. Neopsoromopsis
  604. Neosergipea
  605. Nephroma
  606. Nephromopsis
  607. Nevesia
  608. Niebla
  609. Nigrovothelium
  610. Nipponoparmelia
  611. Nitidochapsa
  612. Nodobryoria
  613. Normandina
  614. Notocladonia
  615. Notolecidea
  616. Notoparmelia
  617. Nyungwea
  618. Obscuroplaca[83]
  619. Ocellomma
  620. Ocellularia (list)
  621. Ochrolechia
  622. Oevstedalia
  623. Olegblumia
  624. Omphalodium
  625. Omphalora
  626. Opegrapha
  627. Opeltia[84]
  628. Ophioparma
  629. Orceolina
  630. Orcularia
  631. Orientophila
  632. Oropogon
  633. Orphniospora
  634. Oxnerella
  635. Pachnolepia
  636. Pachyascus
  637. Pachypeltis
  638. Pachyphysis
  639. Palicella
  640. Pallidogramme
  641. Pannaria
  642. Pannoparmelia
  643. Parabagliettoa
  644. Paracollema
  645. Paragyalideopsis[85][86]
  646. Paraingaderia
  647. Parainoa
  648. Paraporpidia
  649. Paraschismatomma
  650. Parasiphula
  651. Paratopeliopsis
  652. Paratricharia
  653. Parmelia
  654. Parmeliella
  655. Parmelina
  656. Parmelinella
  657. Parmeliopsis
  658. Parmostictina
  659. Parmotrema (list)
  660. Parmotremopsis
  661. Parvoplaca
  662. Paulia
  663. Peccania
  664. Pectenia
  665. Peltigera
  666. Peltula
  667. Peltularia
  668. Pentagenella
  669. Pertusaria (list)
  670. Petractis
  671. Phaeographis
  672. Phaeographopsis
  673. Phaeophyscia
  674. Phaeorrhiza
  675. Phloeopeccania
  676. Phlyctis
  677. Phoebus
  678. Phylliscidium
  679. Phyllisciella
  680. Phylliscidiopsis
  681. Phylliscum
  682. Phyllobaeis
  683. Phyllobathelium
  684. Phylloblastia
  685. Phyllocratera
  686. Phyllogyalidea
  687. Phyllopsora
  688. Physcia
  689. Physcidia
  690. Physciella
  691. Physconia
  692. Physma
  693. Piccolia
  694. Pilophorus
  695. Placidiopsis
  696. Placidium
  697. Placocarpus
  698. Placolecis
  699. Placomaronea
  700. Placopsis
  701. Placopyrenium
  702. Placothelium
  703. Placynthiella
  704. Placynthiopsis
  705. Placynthium
  706. Platismatia
  707. Platygramme
  708. Platythecium
  709. Plectocarpon
  710. Pleopsidium
  711. Pleurosticta
  712. Pliariona
  713. Podostictina
  714. Podotara
  715. Poeltiaria
  716. Poeltidea
  717. Poeltinula
  718. Polistroma
  719. Polyblastia
  720. Polyblastidium
  721. Polycauliona
  722. Polychidium
  723. Polymeridium
  724. Polypyrenula
  725. Polysporina
  726. Porina
  727. Porocyphus
  728. Porpidia
  729. Porpidinia[42]
  730. Protoblastenia
  731. Protomicarea
  732. Protopannaria
  733. Protoparmelia
  734. Protoparmeliopsis
  735. Protoroccella[42]
  736. Protothelenella
  737. Protousnea
  738. Psammina
  739. Psathyrophlyctis
  740. Pseudarctomia
  741. Pseudephebe
  742. Pseudevernia
  743. Pseudobaeomyces
  744. Pseudocalopadia
  745. Pseudochapsa
  746. Pseudocyphellaria
  747. Pseudohepatica
  748. Pseudoheppia
  749. Pseudolecanactis
  750. Pseudoleptogium
  751. Pseudopannaria
  752. Pseudoparmelia
  753. Pseudopaulia
  754. Pseudopeltula
  755. Pseudopyrenula
  756. Pseudoramonia
  757. Pseudosagedia
  758. Pseudoschismatomma
  759. Pseudothelomma
  760. Pseudotopeliopsis
  761. Psilolechia
  762. Psiloparmelia
  763. Psora
  764. Psorinia
  765. Psoroglaena
  766. Psoroma
  767. Psoromella
  768. Psoromidium[42]
  769. Psoronactis
  770. Psorotheciopsis
  771. Psorotichia
  772. Psorula
  773. Pterygiopsis
  774. Ptychographa
  775. Pulvinodecton
  776. Pulvinora[87]
  777. Punctelia
  778. Punctonora
  779. Puttea
  780. Pycnora
  781. Pycnothelia
  782. Pycnotrema
  783. Pyrenocarpon
  784. Pyrenocollema
  785. Pyrenodesmia
  786. Pyrenopsis
  787. Pyrenothrix
  788. Pyrenowilmsia
  789. Pyrenula (list)
  790. Pyrgillus
  791. Pyrrhospora
  792. Pyxine
  793. Racodium
  794. Racoleus
  795. Raesaeneniana
  796. Ramalea
  797. Ramalina
  798. Ramalodium
  799. Ramboldia
  800. Ramonia
  801. Redingeria
  802. Redonia
  803. Redonographa
  804. Rehmanniella[88]
  805. Reichlingia
  806. Reimnitzia
  807. Relicina
  808. Remototrachyna
  809. Requienella
  810. Rhabdodiscus
  811. Rhabdopsora
  812. Rhaphidicyrtis
  813. Rhexophiale
  814. Rhizocarpon
  815. Rhizolecia
  816. Rhizoplaca
  817. Ricasolia
  818. Rimularia
  819. Rinodina (list)
  820. Rinodinella
  821. Robergea
  822. Roccella
  823. Roccellographa
  824. Roccellina
  825. Roccellinastrum
  826. Rockefellera[89]
  827. Rolfidium
  828. Rolueckia
  829. Romjularia
  830. Ropalospora
  831. Rostania
  832. Rubrotricha
  833. Rufoplaca
  834. Rusavskia
  835. Sagedia
  836. Sagema
  837. Sagenidiopsis
  838. Sagiolechia
  839. Sanguinotrema
  840. Santessonia
  841. Sarcographa
  842. Sarcographina
  843. Sarcogyne
  844. Sarcosagium
  845. Sarea
  846. Sarrameana
  847. Savoronala
  848. Schadonia
  849. Schaereria
  850. Schismatomma
  851. Schistophoron
  852. Schizodiscus
  853. Schizopelte
  854. Schizotrema
  855. Schizoxylon
  856. Sclerococcum
  857. Sclerophora
  858. Sclerophyton
  859. Scleropyrenium
  860. Scoliciosporum
  861. Sculptolumina
  862. Scutaria
  863. Scytinium
  864. Sedelnikovaea
  865. Segestria
  866. Seirophora
  867. Semigyalecta
  868. Semiomphalina
  869. Septotrapelia
  870. Servitia
  871. Shackletonia
  872. Sigridea
  873. Simonyella
  874. Sipmaniella
  875. Siphula
  876. Siphulastrum
  877. Siphulella
  878. Sipmania
  879. Sirenophila
  880. Snippocia[90][73]
  881. Solenopsora
  882. Solitaria
  883. Solorina
  884. Solorinaria
  885. Sparria
  886. Speerschneidera
  887. Sphaerophorus
  888. Sphaerophoropsis
  889. Spheconisca
  890. Sphinctrinopsis
  891. Spilonema
  892. Sporastatia
  893. Sporodictyon
  894. Sporodophoron
  895. Sporopodiopsis
  896. Sporopodium
  897. Sporostigma
  898. Sprucidea[91][80]
  899. Squamarina
  900. Squamella
  901. Squamulea
  902. Staurospora[92][93]
  903. Staurolemma
  904. Staurothele
  905. Stegobolus
  906. Steinera
  907. Steineropsis
  908. Steinia
  909. Stellarangia
  910. Stenhammarella
  911. Stephanocyclos
  912. Stereocaulon
  913. Sticta
  914. Stictis
  915. Stigmatochroma
  916. Stigmidium
  917. Strangospora
  918. Streimannia
  919. Streimanniella
  920. Stirtonia
  921. Stirtoniella
  922. Strigula
  923. Stromatella
  924. Sulcaria
  925. Sulcopyrenula
  926. Sulzbacheromyces
  927. Synalissa
  928. Synarthonia
  929. Synarthothelium
  930. Syncesia
  931. Szczawinskia
  932. Tania
  933. Tapellaria
  934. Tapellariopsis
  935. Tarasginia
  936. Tarbertia
  937. Tasmidella
  938. Tassiloa
  939. Tayloriellina
  940. Teloschistes
  941. Teloschistopsis
  942. Tenuitholiascus[94][45]
  943. Tephromela
  944. Tetramelas
  945. Teuvoa
  946. Texosporium
  947. Thallinocarpon
  948. Thalloloma
  949. Thamnochrolechia
  950. Thamnolecania
  951. Thamnolia
  952. Thecaria
  953. Thecographa
  954. Thelenella
  955. Thelenidia
  956. Thelidiopsis
  957. Thelignya
  958. Thelliana
  959. Thelocarpon
  960. Thelomma
  961. Thelopsis
  962. Thelotrema
  963. Thermutis
  964. Thermutopsis
  965. Tholurna
  966. Thrombium
  967. Thyrea
  968. Thysanothecium
  969. Tibellia
  970. Timdalia
  971. Tingiopsidium
  972. Toensbergia
  973. Toninia
  974. Toniniopsis
  975. Topelia
  976. Topeliopsis
  977. Tornabea
  978. Trapelia
  979. Trapeliopsis
  980. Traponora
  981. Tremolecia
  982. Tremotylium[42]
  983. Tricharia
  984. Trichothelium
  985. Trimmatothele
  986. Trimmatothelopsis
  987. Trinathotrema
  988. Trizodia
  989. Trypetheliopsis
  990. Trypethelium
  991. Tuckermanella
  992. Tuckermanopsis
  993. Tylophorella
  994. Tylophoron
  995. Tylophoropsis
  996. Tylothallia
  997. Umbilicaria
  998. Upretia[95]
  999. Usnea
  1000. Usnocetraria
  1001. Usnochroma
  1002. Vahliella
  1003. Vainionora
  1004. Varicellaria
  1005. Variospora
  1006. Verrucaria (list)
  1007. Verruculopsis
  1008. Verseghya[96]
  1009. Vezdaea
  1010. Vigneronia
  1011. Villophora
  1012. Violella
  1013. Viridothelium
  1014. Vulpicida
  1015. Wadeana
  1016. Wahlenbergiella
  1017. Watsoniomyces[97]
  1018. Wawea
  1019. Waynea
  1020. Wetmoreana
  1021. Willeya
  1022. Wirthiotrema
  1023. Xalocoa
  1024. Xanthocarpia
  1025. Xanthomendoza
  1026. Xanthoparmelia (list)
  1027. Xanthopeltis
  1028. Xanthopsorella
  1029. Xanthoria
  1030. Xenolecia
  1031. Xenus
  1032. Xyleborus
  1033. Xylographa
  1034. Xyloschistes
  1035. Xylopsora
  1036. Yarrumia
  1037. Yoshimuria
  1038. Yoshimuriella
  1039. Zahlbrucknerella
  1040. Zeroviella
  1041. Zwackhia

Species

[edit]

In 2009, taxonomists estimated that the total number of lichen species (including those yet undiscovered) might be as high as 28,000.[98] By 2016, 19,387 species of lichens had been described and widely accepted.[99]

Lichens, by growth form

[edit]
Stick covered with flat, yellowy-green, wavy-edged lichen speckled with raised orange spots
Xanthoria parietina has the leafy-looking growth of a foliose lichen.[100]

Lichen growth forms – These vary depending on the species:

Lichens, by substrate

[edit]
Photo of stony ground with one large rock covered in a multitude of lichens of different sizes, shapes and colours
Saxicolous lichens are those which grow on stone.[109]

Lichens can be classified by the substrate on which they grow:

Lichens, by region

[edit]
Photo of sandy ground with patches of flat brown and bright orange ball-shaped lichens
Namibia's vast deserts, which hold many species of lichen, remain largely unsurveyed.[115]

Africa

[edit]

Antarctica

[edit]

Asia

[edit]

Australia

[edit]

Europe

[edit]

North America

[edit]

Oceania

[edit]

Pacific

[edit]

South America

[edit]

Photobiont

[edit]
Picture through microscope of four algal cells: round with clear edges and bright green centres
The photobiont in most lichens is a green alga, particularly those from the genus Trebouxia.[6]

Photobiont – the photosynthetic partner in a lichen.[116]

Lichen metabolites

[edit]

Lichen product – organic products, known as secondary metabolites, produced by lichens; these provide a variety of protections for the lichen – from microbes, viruses, herbivores, radiation, oxidants and more.[118]

Four photos showing a leafy dark green lichen; the top two are virtually identical, though one photo is labeled C (calcium hypochlorite or sodium hypochlorite) and K (potassium hydroxide) and the other labeled C and KC (K followed immediately by C). The bottom two show a colour change; where the medulla has been exposed, its colour changes to pinkish-red when exposed to C and KC.
Chemical spot tests on the foliose lichen Punctelia borreri showing thallus (top) and medulla (bottom). The pinkish-red colour change of the medulla in the C and KC tests indicate the presence of gyrophoric acid, a chemical feature that helps to distinguish this lichen from similar species in the same genus.[119]

Study of lichens

[edit]

Lichenology – the study of lichens.[120]

Threats

[edit]

Lichens in culture

[edit]
Two black loaves sit on a plate with knife and fork beside them.
Two baked loaves of Bryoria fremontii, an important traditional food for some First Nations people[129]

Lichen organizations

[edit]
  • Herzogia – peer-reviewed journal published by BLAM.
  • Lindbergia – peer-reviewed journal co-published by the Dutch Bryological and Lichenological Society and the Nordic Bryological Society.

Independent lichenological journals

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Van Hoose 2021.
  2. ^ Cambridge Dictionary.
  3. ^ a b Favor 2005, p. 5.
  4. ^ Laundon 1986, p. 3.
  5. ^ Li et al. 2021, p. evab101.
  6. ^ a b c Purvis 2000, p. 9.
  7. ^ a b Laundon 1986, p. 2.
  8. ^ Honegger 1998, p. 197.
  9. ^ a b Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 758.
  10. ^ Baron 1999, p. 14.
  11. ^ Hawksworth, Sutton & Ainsworth 1983, p. 26.
  12. ^ Silverstein, Silverstein & Silverstein 1996, p. 32.
  13. ^ Smith et al. 2009, p. 22.
  14. ^ Smith et al. 2009, p. 30.
  15. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 756.
  16. ^ Hale 1983, pp. 3, 6.
  17. ^ Smith et al. 2009, p. 36.
  18. ^ Smith et al. 2009, p. 24.
  19. ^ Hawksworth, Sutton & Ainsworth 1983, p. 330.
  20. ^ a b Smith et al. 2009, p. 38.
  21. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 763.
  22. ^ a b Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 757.
  23. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 759.
  24. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 760.
  25. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 761.
  26. ^ a b Henriksson & Simu 1971, p. 119.
  27. ^ Smith et al. 2020, p. 134.
  28. ^ Bowler & Rundel 1975, p. 328.
  29. ^ Bowler & Rundel 1975, p. 326–327.
  30. ^ Galloway 2012, p. 315.
  31. ^ Zakeri et al. 2022, p. 80.
  32. ^ Chen, Blume & Beyer 2000, p. 124.
  33. ^ Green et al. 2018, p. 397.
  34. ^ a b c d Wijayawardene et al. 2022.
  35. ^ a b c Lücking, Hodkinson & Leavitt 2016, p. 377–400.
  36. ^ Bendre 2010, p. 131.
  37. ^ Lepp 2014.
  38. ^ a b c Lücking, Hodkinson & Leavitt 2016, p. 371.
  39. ^ a b Kraichak et al. 2018a.
  40. ^ a b Kraichak et al. 2018b.
  41. ^ a b c Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 162.
  42. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Lücking, Hodkinson & Leavitt 2017, p. 58.
  43. ^ Gamundí & Spinedi 1985, p. 112.
  44. ^ Jiang et al. 2020, p. 11.
  45. ^ a b Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 124.
  46. ^ Lendemer, Harris & Ruiz 2016, p. 26.
  47. ^ Lücking & Kalb 2018, p. 353.
  48. ^ Wilk et al. 2021, p. 289.
  49. ^ Aptroot, Sparrius & Alvarado 2018, p. 12.
  50. ^ Wilk et al. 2021, p. 292.
  51. ^ Spribille et al. 2020, p. 85.
  52. ^ Kantvilas, Wedin & Svensson 2021, p. 400.
  53. ^ Divakar et al. 2017, p. 110.
  54. ^ a b c Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 150.
  55. ^ Diederich & Ertz 2020, p. 22.
  56. ^ Kistenich et al. 2018, p. 871.
  57. ^ Fryday et al. 2020, p. 473.
  58. ^ Wilk et al. 2021, p. 293.
  59. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2019, p. 295.
  60. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 79.
  61. ^ a b Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 156.
  62. ^ a b c Divakar et al. 2017, p. 109.
  63. ^ Ertz et al. 2017, p. 131.
  64. ^ Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 159.
  65. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 86.
  66. ^ Simon et al. 2020, p. 82.
  67. ^ Sobreira et al. 2018, p. 67.
  68. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 87.
  69. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 90.
  70. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 91.
  71. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 96.
  72. ^ Grube, Matzer & Hafellner 1995, p. 28.
  73. ^ a b Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 89.
  74. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2018, p. 97.
  75. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 105.
  76. ^ Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 98.
  77. ^ Sodamuk et al. 2017, p. 15.
  78. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2021, p. 372.
  79. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2021, p. 375.
  80. ^ a b Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 149.
  81. ^ Kalb & Aptroot 2021, p. 5.
  82. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2015, p. 328.
  83. ^ Bungartz, Søchting & Arup 2021.
  84. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 112.
  85. ^ Etayo 2017, p. 335.
  86. ^ Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 160.
  87. ^ Davydov et al. 2021, p. 245.
  88. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2018, p. 107.
  89. ^ Lendemer, Stone & Tripp 2017, p. 459.
  90. ^ Ertz et al. 2018, p. 170.
  91. ^ Cáceres et al. 2017, p. 206.
  92. ^ Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 38.
  93. ^ Grube 2018, p. 695.
  94. ^ Jiang et al. 2020, p. 1.
  95. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2018, p. 24.
  96. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2016, p. 104.
  97. ^ Díaz-Escandón et al. 2021, p. 501.
  98. ^ Lücking et al. 2009, p. 411.
  99. ^ Lücking, Hodkinson & Leavitt 2016, p. 370.
  100. ^ Dobson 2011, p. 470.
  101. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 16.
  102. ^ a b c d e The British Lichen Society 2022a.
  103. ^ Temu et al. 2019, p. 1.
  104. ^ Kantvilas 1996, p. 229.
  105. ^ Dobson 2011, p. 26.
  106. ^ Sanders 2001, p. 1033.
  107. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 17.
  108. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 18.
  109. ^ a b c d e f g The British Lichen Society 2022b.
  110. ^ Lendemer, Buck & Harris 2016, p. 441.
  111. ^ a b c d Upreti & Rai 2013, p. 2.
  112. ^ a b Lücking 2008, p. 4.
  113. ^ Lücking 1998, p. 287.
  114. ^ Rosentreter 1993, p. 333.
  115. ^ Schultz, Zedda & Rambold 2009, p. 315.
  116. ^ Purvis 2000, p. 5.
  117. ^ Rikkinen 2015, p. 973.
  118. ^ Goga et al. 2018, p. 1.
  119. ^ Truong & Clerc 2003, p. 52.
  120. ^ Merriam-Webster.
  121. ^ International Association for Lichenology.
  122. ^ Pfister 1985, p. 1.
  123. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 84.
  124. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 103.
  125. ^ Lawrey & Diederich 2003, p. 80.
  126. ^ Nimis, Scheidegger & Wolseley 2002.
  127. ^ Oliver 2011, p. 1.
  128. ^ Field Museum 2022.
  129. ^ Turner 1977, p. 461.
  130. ^ Penguin Books.
  131. ^ Ivanova & Ivanov 2009, p. 11.
  132. ^ Vinayaka & Krishnamurthy 2012, p. 265.

References

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[edit]

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