Categories
  Encyclosphere.org ENCYCLOREADER
  supported by EncyclosphereKSF

Pichu Pichu

From Wikipedia - Reading time: 18 min

Pichu Pichu
Highest point
Elevation5,664 m (18,583 ft)
ListingList of mountains in the Andes
Coordinates16°26′28″S 71°14′25″W / 16.4411388889°S 71.2403888889°W / -16.4411388889; -71.2403888889
Geography
Pichu Pichu is located in Peru
Pichu Pichu
Pichu Pichu
Location of Pichu Pichu within Peru
LocationArequipa, Peru
Parent rangeAndes

Pichu Pichu is an inactive eroded volcano in the Andes of Peru, with seven summits; the highest reaches a height of 5,664 metres (18,583 ft). It lies east of the city Arequipa and together with its neighbours Misti and Chachani is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes. Pichu Pichu was active many millions of years ago, producing ignimbrites and lava flows with andesitic composition. During the last two million years, a gigantic landslide descended the western side of the volcano and left a large scar that runs north to south. Pichu Pichu bore glaciers during the last glacial maximum, which left moraines and other glacial landforms after they retreated.

Presently, the mountain is covered with snow only during the summer months, when the monsoon brings precipitation from the Amazon; the last permanent ice disappeared during the last decades. Pichu Pichu is an important source of water for its surroundings. Parts of its flanks are forested, and numerous mammal species have been identified on the mountain.

The Inca built a path on to the mountain and offered human sacrifices, capacochas, on Pichu Pichu. Three mummies, two girls and one boy, were discovered between 1960 and 1996 under a platform close to the summit of the volcano. The mountain was considered to be the seat of a deity, and offerings continue to be made to it.

Name and climbing

[edit]

The name possibly stems from Quechua pikchu, meaning "summit". The duplication indicates that there are multiple summits.[1]: 233 [2]: 3  Another etymology relates it to picu, "wooly tuft", reflecting the appearance of the debris pile surrounding the mountain.[3] Thor Heyerdahl linked the word pikopiko to the name Pichu Pichu.[4] An older name of the mountain is "Tunupa".[5]

Ascents usually take place in the months between April and November. The easiest to reach summit has an elevation of 5,515 metres (18,094 ft) above sea level. From there, one can see the Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve and the city of Arequipa.[6] Part of the mountain is in the nature reserve.[7]: 274  It is also used for mountain biking.[8]: 78 

Geography and geomorphology

[edit]

Pichu Pichu is 25 kilometres (16 mi) east of and 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) above Arequipa,[9]: 13  and the town Chiguata is on its foot,[10]: 1597  while the town of Chilita[11]: 223  and the salt flat Laguna Salinas lie east of the volcano.[11]: 222  The frontier between the Arequipa and Moquegua Departments runs over the mountain.[9]: 12  The roads between Arequipa and Juliaca and between Arequipa and Matalaque pass around the northern and eastern feet of the volcano, respectively.[10]: 1594 [11]: 223  Together with its neighbours Chachani and Misti, it is part of the Cordillera Occidental[12]: 254  at the edge of the Altiplano,[13]: 15  and rises abruptly from the surrounding terrain.[14]

The volcano consists of a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) long[15]: 446  northnorthwest-southsoutheast trending ridge with seven summits.[6] The highest point (Coronado) has an altitude of 5,664 metres (18,583 ft) above sea level[6][2]: 3  and a summit cross was placed on it before 1966.[9]: 21  It lies at the top of a near-vertical drop.[1]: 14  Other summits are 5,247 metres (17,215 ft) (at the northern end of the edifice), 5,425 metres (17,799 ft) (central portion of the ridge) and 5,416 metres (17,769 ft) (southern end of the ridge) high.[16]: 118  One of the summits is known as La Horquetilla or Cerro de las Virgenes;[9]: 8  in 1966 it was thought to be 5,664 metres (18,583 ft) high.[9]: 12  Four volcanic craters have been recognized and are heavily eroded[15]: 446  The upper flanks of the volcano are very steep and hard to access on the eastern and western side.[9]: 13  Their original volcanic shape is best preserved on the northeastern side.[17]: 23  The volcano covers an area of about 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi);[6] glacial and fluvial deposits cover its lower flanks.[18]: 486  During its activity, Pichu Pichu produced mudflows[19]: 37  and ignimbrites that crop out on the western side of the volcano.[20]: 8 

Above 4,200 metres (13,800 ft), the western face of Pichu Pichu is cut by a steep scarp[15]: 446  formed by a giant landslide.[12]: 254  Five distinct lobes of the landslide[16]: 120  descended side-by side;[16]: 118  they were highly mobile,[21]: 2  running for a length of 28 kilometres (17 mi)[16]: 117  over the Arequipa basin and burying older ignimbrites.[12]: 254  The landslide generated the hilly "Arequipa landslide deposit",[22]: 602  which covers an area of 100–200 square kilometres (39–77 sq mi) with 10–20 cubic kilometres (2.4–4.8 cu mi) of rock,[16]: 120 [21]: 16  consisting of several formations: A northern debris avalanche, a central deposit formed by concentrated flows and a southern lobe formed by lava blocks.[16]: 118  It was violent enough to melt the rocks in the slide, forming pseudotachylite,[23]: 1  and to erode the underlying rock.[16]: 121  Water was squeezed upwards, forming muddy dykes within the landslide deposit[22]: 603  and mudflows.[19]: 36  The landslide is responsible for the arcuate shape of Pichu Pichu mountain[21]: 2  and dammed the Andamayo river, forming a now-vanished lake at Chiguata.[24]: 22 

It is not clear when the landslide occurred, but the ages of the underlying and overlying rocks constrain it to between 2.42 million and 34,000 years ago.[22]: 607  After the landslide, the collapse scar was further modified by erosion, which formed additional scars[16]: 118  and river valleys,[21]: 4  and was covered by material from the other volcanoes in the area.[21]: 3  It is possible that Pichu Pichu erupted again after the collapse.[24]: 22  Originally, the collapse scar was interpreted as being due to glacial erosion.[15] Landslides also occurred on the eastern flank.[25]: 63 

Geology

[edit]

Off the western coast of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate; this subduction is responsible for volcanism in southern Peru,[12]: 252  which forms the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) of the Andes.[21]: 2  The Peruvian CVZ includes (from north to south) Coropuna, Ampato, Chachani, Misti, Pichu Pichu, Ubinas, Huaynaputina, Ticsani and Tutupaca. Some of these volcanoes are among the highest in the world.[15]: 443  Pichu Pichu, Misti and Chachani are a group of volcanoes close to Arequipa.[10]: 1593  Four stages of volcanism have been distinguished in southern Peru: The Cretaceous-Paleocene Toquepala Group, the Miocene Huaylillas and Tacaza Formations, and the Miocene-Quaternary Sencca Formation and Barroso Group;[12]: 252  Pichu Pichu is part of the Barroso[6] or Chila.[19]: 33  Several faults run across the region, separating Misti from Pichu Pichu, and volcanoes have formed on them.[18]: 487 

Pichu Pichu is a stratovolcano[9]: 13  that formed on top of older lavas[24]: 21  and ignimbrites 6.7 million years ago (potassium-argon dating).[21]: 2  It is formed by andesitic lava flows and pyroclastics[9]: 13  that contain phenocrysts of augite, hornblende, hypersthene and olivine.[26] The composition of Pichu Pichu is typical for Andean volcanoes,[21]: 15  but it has adakitic traits.[13]: 26  The rocks occur in both brecciated and massive form.[27]: 33  Pichu Pichu is extinct[10]: 1593  and heavily eroded.[9]: 13  After activity ceased, a sector collapse at Misti covered Pichu Pichu's western flank.[10]: 1595  A fault runs between Pichu Pichu and Coropuna volcano and was active during the last 43,000 years.[28]: 8 

During the last glacial maximum, glaciers formed on Pichu Pichu and descended to 4,200 metres (13,800 ft) elevation.[29] This glaciation has left recognizable traces on the mountains including cirques, glacial troughs, hanging valleys, moraines[30]: 914  and mudflows.[19]: 52  Moraines occur at elevations of 4,500 metres (14,800 ft). Below the moraines are outwash plains.[11]: 222  A series of hills at the base of Pichu Pichu may be erosion products of moraines or moraines proper associated with the volcano.[30]: 910  In 1963, there was still permanent ice on Pichu Pichu.[9]: 8  Since then, ice has retreated due to global warming[25]: 9  and the mountain has lost its glaciers.[25]: 32  Presently, frost shattering takes place, caused by the large day-night temperature differences,[6] and there are rock glaciers within cirques.[29]

Climate, vegetation and hydrology

[edit]

The climate of the region is relatively dry, with most precipitation falling during the summer months when the monsoon brings moisture from the Amazon. At the higher elevations of Pichu Pichu precipitation is greater than the lowlands, reaching 400–600 millimetres (16–24 in) per year[18]: 485  and rapidly declining southwestward[30]: 896  although reportedly on Pichu Pichu and Misti precipitation mostly falls on the southwestern side.[31] The summit has a polar climate,[25]: 23  and an ephemeral snow cover forms on the mountain during summer.[18]: 485  There are several vegetation belts on the mountain. Between 3,000–3,700 metres (10,000–12,000 ft), there are various shrubs.[32]: 2  Polylepis rugulosa[7]: 274  forests grow at 3,700–4,000 metres (12,100–13,100 ft) elevation,[18]: 497  where they cover an area of about 40 square kilometres (15 sq mi)[33] to 50 square kilometres (19 sq mi).[33]: 91  The rest of the mountain is covered with tundra. Typical plant species are tola, ichu grass and yareta.[9]: 12  Animals include Altiplano chinchilla mice, ashy chinchilla rats,[33]: 293  birds,[33]: 23  cougars, culpeos, Jelski's altiplano mice, lesser grisons, Lima leaf-eared mice,[33]: 293  lizards,[33]: 222  master leaf-eared mice, Molina's hog-nosed skunks, Northern viscachas, Pampas cats,[33]: 293  Peruvian slender snake,[33]: 23  Puno grass mice, small big-eared brown bats, tarucas, white-bellied fat-tailed mouse opossums and yellow-rumped leaf-eared mice.[33]: 293  At lower elevations there are spectacular agricultural terraces.[34]: 38  Parts of the volcano are within the Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve.[33]: 89 

The western flank drains into the Andamayo and Mollebaya rivers,[10]: 1597  and the southwestern into Yarabamba river (a tributary of the Mollebaya).[35]: 65  The Andamayo and Mollebaya eventually join to form the Vitor and Siguas river and flow to the Pacific Ocean.[12]: 254  On the eastern flank, waters flow into the Laguna Salinas[18]: 498  closed basin.[33]: 23  Dry valleys run down the slopes of Pichu Pichu.[27]: 14  The mountain is an important source of water,[6] as water from springs east of Arequipa originates on it.[18]: 485  Rainwater easily penetrates the heavily fractured rocks[27]: 9  and re-emerges as bicarbonate-rich water in springs.[27]: 8  The waters are used for irrigation,[35]: 66  and there have been discussions about damming rivers.[35]: 69 

Archeology and religious importance

[edit]

A partially collapsed[2]: 3  ceremonial platform constructed by the Incas[2]: 1  sits between the two highest points of Pichu Pichu,[1]: 12  in a place more suitable for construction than the actual peak.[1]: 96  The Incas built a zig-zagging[36] trail on to the mountain,[1]: 94  which on the northeastern flank includes a staircase cut into rocks[9]: 16  that crosses a steep slope at over 5,300 metres (17,400 ft) above sea level.[37] A tambo (waystation) at 4,600 metres (15,100 ft) elevation[2]: 3  lies on the northeastern foot, along with a ceremonial platform[9]: 11  covered by ash from Huaynaputina's 1600 eruption.[9]: 18  The buildings of the tambo have different sizes,[1]: 94  perhaps implying social differentiation.[1]: 93  The existence of petroglyphs[9]: 11  with Inca geometric motifs[25]: 170  is controversial.[38] The Tiahuanaco built hilltop sites around the mountain.[34]: 33  The discovery of the archaeological sites in 1958 by Japanese alpinists drew the attention of media in Japan and Arequipa, which claimed the discovery of a lost city,[9]: 7  with Pichu-Pichu occasionally being confused for Coropuna.[9]: 8  Initial expeditions did not find archaeological evidence, and the existence of the sites was debated in the regional media.[9]: 10  The 1996 expedition later became subject of a film by Discovery TV, Andes: Life in the Sky.[1]: 231 

A mummy was found in 1964[6] or 1963[2]: 3  under the summit platform, and two more in 1996.[2]: 5  They were probably two females (one 15 and the other 10 years old) and one 8-year old male.[39] The cranium of one of them had been deformed.[40]: 4  Various grave goods,[2]: 5  including borax,[1]: 161  pottery, a textile with rings of silver,[1]: 12  and anthropomorphic and animal-like statues were recovered from Pichu Pichu.[41] The mummies were capacochas, Inca human sacrifices,[42]: 1  and had received blows to the head before burial; they may have resisted being sacrificed.[43]: 141  After death, they were wrapped in bundles, laid between the walls and gravel piled up, until a platform had formed.[1]: 127  The girls were probably acllas, maidens that had been picked at a young age to become servants to the gods.[40]: 3  They were presumably offered to placate the mid-15th century volcanic eruption of neighbouring Misti.[44] The mummies had first been discovered in the course of grave robbing, and scientific findings were initially not published out of fear that they would draw more robbers.[44]

Together with Chachani and Misti, Pichu Pichu was viewed as the protector of Arequipa. It was an apu, a kind of divinity in Andean culture[6] linked to mountains[45]: 457  that receives offerings. It is described as having a helpful personality.[2]: 3  In other myths Pichu Pichu is the Arequipean seat of the Inkca creation deity Roal.[46]: 70–71  Ancient states such as the Wari empire thus established control over the mountains;[45]: 456–457  Pichu Pichu is visible from the important Wari site Cerro Baul,[45]: 461  and its highest summit is recognizable from the Churajón site.[25]: 171  To this day, the mountain is viewed as a protective spirit[8]: 71  and venerated.[45]: 464  Supposedly, it prefers expensive drinks.[47]: 344 

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Reinhard, Johan; Ceruti, Maria Costanza (2010). Inca Rituals and Sacred Mountains: A Study of the World's Highest Archaeological Sites. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. ISBN 978-1-950446-37-7. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i Socha, Dagmara M.; Reinhard, Johan; Perea, Ruddy Chávez (2021-05-14). "Inca human sacrifices from the Ampato and Pichu Pichu volcanoes, Peru: new results from a bio-anthropological analysis". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 13 (6): 94. Bibcode:2021ArAnS..13...94S. doi:10.1007/s12520-021-01332-1. ISSN 1866-9565. S2CID 234489075. Archived from the original on 2024-02-17. Retrieved 2022-02-05.
  3. ^ Holmer, Nils M. (1 December 1960). "Indian Place Names in South America and the Antilles. II". Names. 8 (4): 205. doi:10.1179/nam.1960.8.4.197.
  4. ^ Heyerdahl, Thor (1950). "The Voyage of the Raft Kon-Tiki". The Geographical Journal. 115 (1/3): 37. Bibcode:1950GeogJ.115...20H. doi:10.2307/1789016. ISSN 0016-7398. JSTOR 1789016. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  5. ^ Barros, Alonso (2023). "Los N'gen y el Inca, Genii Locorum del Apu Manquehue". Revista de Ciencias Sociales (in Spanish). 32 (51): 134. doi:10.61303/07172257.v32i51.260. ISSN 0717-2257. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Nevado Pichu Pichu". Inventario Turístico del Perú (in Spanish). MINCETUR. Archived from the original on 25 June 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
  7. ^ a b Quispe-Colca, Oscar M.; Kaderka, Radan; Quispe-Colca, Oscar M.; Kaderka, Radan (July 2020). "Bistriopelma fabianae, una nueva especie de tarántula (Araneae: Theraphosidae: Theraphosinae) de un bosque de Queñua en el sur de Perú". Revista Peruana de Biología. 27 (3): 273–282. doi:10.15381/rpb.v27i3.16295. ISSN 1727-9933. S2CID 225209264. Archived from the original on 2022-02-05. Retrieved 2022-02-05.
  8. ^ a b Zuñiga, Luis Enrique Vargas; Champi, Jesús Estanislao Mamani; Amaro, Amelia Álvarez (31 July 2024). "Turismo sostenible, una propuesta para su aplicación y factibilidad: estudio detallado de la localidad Chiguata en Arequipa". Revista Veritas et Scientia - Upt (in Spanish). 13 (1). doi:10.47796/ves.v13i01.975. ISSN 2617-0639.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Linares Málaga, Eloy (1966). "Restos arqueológicos en el Nevado Pichu Pichu: (Arequipa, Perú)". Anales de Arqueología y Etnología (in Spanish). 21: 7–48. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Thouret, Jean-Claude; Finizola, Anthony; Fornari, Michel; Legeley-Padovani, Annick; Suni, Jaime; Frechen, Manfred (2001-12-01). "Geology of El Misti volcano near the city of Arequipa, Peru" (PDF). Geological Society of America Bulletin. 113 (12): 1593. Bibcode:2001GSAB..113.1593T. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2001)113<1593:GOEMVN>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0016-7606. S2CID 130955888 – via Academia.edu.
  11. ^ a b c d Juvigné, Étienne; Thouret, Jean-Claude; Gilot, Étienne; Gourgaud, Alain; Graf, Kurt; Leclercq, Louis; Legros, François; Uribe, Miguel (1997). "Étude téphrostratigraphique et bio-climatique du Tardiglaciaire et de l'Holocène de la Laguna Salinas, Pérou méridional". Géographie Physique et Quaternaire (in French). 51 (2): 222. doi:10.7202/033120ar. ISSN 0705-7199.
  12. ^ a b c d e f Lebti, Perrine Paquereau; Thouret, Jean-Claude; Wörner, Gerhard; Fornari, Michel (2006-06-15). "Neogene and Quaternary ignimbrites in the area of Arequipa, Southern Peru: Stratigraphical and petrological correlations". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 154 (3–4): 254. Bibcode:2006JVGR..154..251L. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.02.014.
  13. ^ a b Legros, F (April 2001). "Tephra stratigraphy of Misti volcano, Peru". Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 14 (1): 15–29. Bibcode:2001JSAES..14...15L. doi:10.1016/S0895-9811(00)00062-6.
  14. ^ Hitchcock, Charles B. (1941). "Third General Assembly of the Pan American Institute of Geography and History". Geographical Review. 31 (3): 500. ISSN 0016-7428. JSTOR 210184. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  15. ^ a b c d e Bullard, Fred M. (1962-12-01). "Volcanoes of Southern Peru". Bulletin Volcanologique. 24 (1): 446–447. Bibcode:1962BVol...24..443B. doi:10.1007/BF02599360. ISSN 0366-483X. S2CID 140637499.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h Bernard, Karine; van Wyk de Vries, Benjamin; Thouret, Jean-Claude (2019-02-01). "Fault textures in volcanic debris-avalanche deposits and transformations into lahars: The Pichu Pichu thrust lobes in south Peru compared to worldwide avalanche deposits". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 371: 116–136. Bibcode:2019JVGR..371..116B. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.01.008. ISSN 0377-0273. S2CID 133940458.
  17. ^ Johnson, George R.; Platt, Raye Roberts (1930). Peru from the Air (Report). AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g Alvarez-Campos, Odiney; Olson, Elizabeth J.; Welp, Lisa R.; Frisbee, Marty D.; Zuñiga Medina, Sebastián A.; Díaz Rodríguez, José; Roque Quispe, Wendy R.; Salazar Mamani, Carol I.; Arenas Carrión, Midhuar R.; Jara, Juan Manuel; Ccanccapa-Cartagena, Alexander (2022-01-31). "Evidence for high-elevation salar recharge and interbasin groundwater flow in the Western Cordillera of the Peruvian Andes". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 26 (2): 483–503. Bibcode:2022HESS...26..483A. doi:10.5194/hess-26-483-2022. ISSN 1027-5606. S2CID 246449090. Archived from the original on 2022-02-04. Retrieved 2022-02-05.
  19. ^ a b c d Guevara Rosillo, Carlos (1969). Geología del cuadrángulo de Characato 33-t - [Boletín A 23] (Report). INGEMMET. Boletín, Serie A: Carta Geológica Nacional, no. 23 (in Spanish). Servicio de Geología y Minería. p. 54. hdl:20.500.12544/141. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  20. ^ Manrique Llerena, Nélida; Rivera Porras, Marco Antonio; Macedo Franco, Luisa Diomira (December 2014). Evaluación de los peligros geológicos en sector de Paucarpata. Región Arequipa, provincia Arequipa, distrito Paucarpata, paraje Pueblo Joven Miguel Grau (Report) (in Spanish). Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico - INGEMMET. p. 20. hdl:20.500.12544/1400. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h Hughes, Amy; Kendrick, Jackie E.; Salas, Guido; Wallace, Paul A.; Legros, François; Di Toro, Giulio; Lavallée, Yan (November 2020). "Shear localisation, strain partitioning and frictional melting in a debris avalanche generated by volcanic flank collapse". Journal of Structural Geology. 140: 104132. Bibcode:2020JSG...14004132H. doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2020.104132.
  22. ^ a b c Legros, François; Cantagrel, Jean-Marie; Devouard, Bertrand (September 2000). "Pseudotachylyte (Frictionite) at the Base of the Arequipa Volcanic Landslide Deposit (Peru): Implications for Emplacement Mechanisms". The Journal of Geology. 108 (5): 601–611. Bibcode:2000JG....108..601L. doi:10.1086/314421. S2CID 128761395.
  23. ^ Bernard, Karine (15 September 2020). "Epithermal clast coating inside the rock avalanche-debris flow deposits from Mount Meager Volcanic Complex, British Columbia (Canada)". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 402: 4. Bibcode:2020JVGR..40206994B. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2020.106994. ISSN 0377-0273. S2CID 224928756.
  24. ^ a b c Mariño Salazar, Jersy; Rivera Porras, Marco Antonio; Cacya Dueñas, Lourdes (2008). Geología y evaluación de peligros volcánicos del Volcán Misti – Arequipa (Report) (in Spanish). Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico. Dirección de Geología Ambiental y Riesgos. p. 47. hdl:20.500.12544/3945. Archived from the original on 2023-11-17. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  25. ^ a b c d e f Zavala, B.; Núñez, S.; Gómez, H.; Pari, W.; Peña, F.; Carpio, J. (2022). Estudio geoambiental de la cuenca del río Quilca-Vítor- Chili (Report) (in Spanish). INGEMMET. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  26. ^ Aramaki, Shigeo; Onuma, Naoki; Portillo, Felix (1984). "Petrography and major element chemistry of the volcanic rocks of the Andes, southern Peru". Geochemical Journal. 18 (5): 226. Bibcode:1984GeocJ..18..217A. doi:10.2343/geochemj.18.217. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  27. ^ a b c d Peña Laureano, Fluquer (April 2018). Perímetros de protección de manantiales en la Zona Oriental de Arequipa. Región Arequipa (Report) (in Spanish). Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico - INGEMMET. p. 120. hdl:20.500.12544/1424. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  28. ^ Geológico, Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgico Dirección de Geología Ambiental y Riesgo (June 2019). "Informe sobre la existencia de fallas geológicas activas en el distrito de Selva Alegre, provincia y región de Arequipa". Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico – INGEMMET. Archived from the original on 2022-02-05. Retrieved 2022-02-05.
  29. ^ a b Palacios, D.; Andrés, N.; Úbeda, J.; Alcalá, J. (April 2009). "Permafrost and Periglacial Activity Distribution and Geothermal Anomalies in the Chachani and El Misti Volcanoes (Southern Peru)". Geophysical Research Abstracts. 11: 8014. Bibcode:2009EGUGA..11.8014P.
  30. ^ a b c Fenner, C. N. (1948-09-01). "Pleistocene Climate and Topography of the Arequipa Region, Peru". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 59 (9): 895–917. Bibcode:1948GSAB...59..895F. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1948)59[895:PCATOT]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0016-7606.
  31. ^ Garner, H. F. (1959). "Stratigraphic-Sedimentary Significance of Contemporary Climate and Relief in Four Regions of the Andes Mountains". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 70 (10): 1364. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1959)70[1327:SSOCCA]2.0.CO;2. Archived from the original on 2024-02-14. Retrieved 2024-02-14.
  32. ^ Stafford, Dora (1939-07-01). "On the Flora of Southern Peru". Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. 151 (3): 172–181. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1939.tb00228.x. ISSN 0370-0461.
  33. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Zeballos Patrón, Horacio; Ochoa Cámara, José Antonio; López Tejeda, Evaristo Luciano, eds. (2010). Diversidad biológica de la Reserva Nacional de Salinas y Aguada Blanca: Arequipa - Moquegua. Lima, Perú: Desco [u.a.] ISBN 978-612-4043-09-3.
  34. ^ a b Love, Thomas F. (2017). The Independent Republic of Arequipa: making regional culture in the Andes. Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long series in Latin American and Latino art and culture (1 ed.). Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-4773-1392-3.
  35. ^ a b c Swiech, Theoclea; Ertsen, Maurits W.; Pererya, Carlos Machicao (2012). "Estimating the impacts of a reservoir for improved water use in irrigation in the Yarabamba region, Peru". Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C. Recent Advances in Water Resources Management. 47: 64–75. Bibcode:2012PCE....47...64S. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2011.06.008.
  36. ^ Vitry, Christian (September 2020). "Los Caminos Ceremoniales en los Apus del Tawantinsuyu". Chungará (Arica). 52 (3): 509–521. doi:10.4067/S0717-73562020005001802. ISSN 0717-7356. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  37. ^ Ricker, John F. (1977). Yuraq Janka: A Guide to the Peruvian Andes. The Mountaineers Books. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-933056-70-8.
  38. ^ Disselhoff, Hans Dietrich (1971). "Südperuanische Felsbilder". Antike Welt (in German). 2 (1): 35. ISSN 0003-570X. JSTOR 44430772. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  39. ^ Bourbou, Chryssi (2005). "Too small to be noticed? Children mummies reveal they stories". Journal of Biological Research - Bollettino della Società Italiana di Biologia Sperimentale. 80 (1): 209. doi:10.4081/jbr.2005.10186. ISSN 2284-0230. S2CID 239539627. Archived from the original on 2021-10-26. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  40. ^ a b Kawchuk, Olenka (18 April 2019). "Children of Heaven". USURJ: University of Saskatchewan Undergraduate Research Journal. 5 (2). doi:10.32396/usurj.v5i2.410. ISSN 2292-1141. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
  41. ^ Mignone, Pablo (2017-04-01). "Análisis distribucional de las estatuillas incaicas encontradas en el volcán Llullaillaco". Bulletin de l'Institut français d'études andines (in Spanish). 46 (1): 77–96. doi:10.4000/bifea.8145. ISSN 0303-7495. S2CID 166205963. Archived from the original on 2022-02-05. Retrieved 2022-02-05.
  42. ^ Wilson, Andrew S.; Brown, Emma L.; Villa, Chiara; Lynnerup, Niels; Healey, Andrew; Ceruti, Maria Constanza; Reinhard, Johan; Previgliano, Carlos H.; Araoz, Facundo Arias (2013-08-13). "Archaeological, radiological, and biological evidence offer insight into Inca child sacrifice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (33): 13322–13327. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11013322W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1305117110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3746857. PMID 23898165.
  43. ^ Socha, Dagmara M.; Reinhard, Johan; Chávez Perea, Ruddy (March 2021). "Inca Human Sacrifices on Misti Volcano (Peru)". Latin American Antiquity. 32 (1): 138–153. doi:10.1017/laq.2020.78.
  44. ^ a b Chávez, Chávez; Antonio, José (2001-07-01). "Investigaciones Arqueológicas de Alta Montaña en el Sur del Perú". Chungará (Arica). 33 (2): 283–288. doi:10.4067/S0717-73562001000200014. ISSN 0717-7356.
  45. ^ a b c d Williams, Patrick Ryan; Nash, Donna J. (2006-09-01). "Sighting the apu: a GIS analysis of Wari imperialism and the worship of mountain peaks" (PDF). World Archaeology. 38 (3): 465–466. doi:10.1080/00438240600813491. ISSN 0043-8243. S2CID 10340115. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2019-09-18.
  46. ^ Béjar, Juan Víctor Núñez Del Prado (1 December 1970). "El mundo sobrenatural de los Quechuas del Sur del Perú, a través de la Comunidad de Qotobamba". Allpanchis (in Spanish). 2 (2): 57–119. doi:10.36901/allpanchis.v2i2.323. ISSN 2708-8960. Archived from the original on 8 February 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
  47. ^ øDegaard, Cecilie Vindal (June 2011). "Sources of danger and prosperity in the Peruvian Andes: mobility in a powerful landscape: Sources of danger and prosperity". Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. 17 (2): 339–355. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9655.2011.01683.x.
[edit]
Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 | Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pichu_Pichu
3 views |
↧ Download as ZWI file
Encyclosphere.org EncycloReader is supported by the EncyclosphereKSF