Categories
  Encyclosphere.org ENCYCLOREADER
  supported by EncyclosphereKSF

President of Syria

From Wikipedia - Reading time: 19 min

For a list of officeholders, see List of presidents of Syria.

President of the Syrian Arab Republic
رئيس الجمهورية العربية السورية
Emblem of Syria
Presidential standard
since 29 January 2025
Executive branch of the Syrian Government
StyleMr. President (informal)
His Excellency (diplomatic)
StatusHead of state
Head of government
Commander-in-chief
Member of
ResidencePresidential Palace
SeatDamascus
Constituting instrument2025 Interim Constitution of Syria
Inaugural holderSubhi Barakat (French Mandate)
Shukri al-Quwatli (first president of post-independence Syria)
Formation29 June 1922; 102 years ago (1922-06-29)
DeputyVice President

The president of Syria (Arabic: رئيس سوريا, romanized: Raʾīs Sūriyā), officially the president of the Syrian Arab Republic, is the head of state and head of government of Syria. The president directs the executive branch and serves as the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Army and Armed Forces. The president represents the nation in international relations and formalizes treaties with foreign countries.

In 1922, French authorities created the Syrian Federation under the Mandate for Syria and Lebanon, with Subhi Barakat serving as its president. The federation was short-lived and was replaced by the State of Syria in 1925. Barakat briefly remained president until the outbreak of the Great Syrian Revolt later that year, which led to his resignation. He was succeeded by Ahmad Nami, who served as president until his removal in 1928. In the following years, the Syrian presidency underwent several changes in leadership, including a coup by Husni al-Za'im in March 1949, followed by another led by Adib Shishakli in 1951. Following the 1958 referendum, Syria joined the United Arab Republic, and its president Gamal Nasser, also became the Syrian president in the same referendum. This lasted for three years until the 1961 coup, when Syria restored its independence and the 1950 constitution.

The 1963 coup d'état, carried out by the Ba'ath Party, established a one-party state that ruled Ba'athist Syria. Internal power struggles within Ba'athist factions led to further coups in 1966 and 1970, with the latter bringing Hafez al-Assad to power. Under Assad, Syria became a hereditary dictatorship. After his death in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad succeeded him and ruled until his overthrow in 2024.

After the fall of the Assad regime, a new interim constitution was implemented and remains in effect today. The interim constitution establishes Syria as a presidential system, with executive power vested in the president. The president's official residence is the Presidential Palace, located in the capital, Damascus. The position is currently held by Ahmed al-Sharaa in a transitional capacity since 29 January 2025.[a]

History

[edit]

Mandatory Syria

[edit]

In 1922, French authorities created the Syrian Federation under the Mandate for Syria and Lebanon, and Subhi Barakat was its president.[1][2] The federation system did not last, and was replaced as the State of Syria by 1925. Barakat briefly retained the role of president until the beginning of the Great Syrian Revolt that year caused him to resign.[2] Ahmad Nami replaced Barakat as president, until he was removed in 1928.[3]

By 1930, Syrian pressure led the French authorities to promulgate the Syrian Constitution of 1930, establishing the First Syrian Republic. Under the constitution, the president must be a Muslim, and would be elected by a majority of the Syrian parliament.[4]

Post-independence

[edit]

Following the withdrawal of French troops from Syria in 1946, Syrian officials approved the Syrian Constitution of 1950, which maintained a parliamentary system. As such, the president would be elected by a majority of parliament.[5] In the following years, Syria's presidency experienced several upheavals, including by Husni al-Za'im following his March 1949 coup and later by Adib Shishakli in through the 1951 coup.[2] During Shishakli's rule, he published the Syrian Constitution of 1953, which established a presidential system with direct elections to the presidency. However, this constitution lasted less than a year, as the reinstated president Hashim al-Atassi returned the country to the 1950 constitution following the 1954 coup only a year later.[6][7]

Following the 1958 referendum, Syria joined the United Arab Republic, and its president, Gamal Nasser, also became the Syrian president in the same referendum.[8] This lasted for three years until the 1961 coup, when Syria restored its independence and the 1950 constitution.[9]

Ba'athist Syria (1963–2024)

[edit]

Following the 1963 Syrian coup d'état, the first decision of the "Revolution Command Council," chaired by Lu'ay al-Atassi, was to suspend the provisional constitution of the United Arab Republic, arrest President Nazim al-Qudsi and Prime Minister Khalid al-Azm, and impose a state of emergency that lasted for 48 years until it was lifted in April 2011.[10] A new Provisional Constitution was adopted on 25 April 1964, which itself was replaced by the Provisional Constitution of 1 May 1969.[11]

Hafez al-Assad greeting Richard Nixon on the latter's arrival at Damascus Airport, 15 July 1974

On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the president of Syria must be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo.[12] The main objection to the constitution from demonstrators was that Islam was not specified as the state religion.[13] In response to riots, the Syrian Constitution of 1973 was amended to stipulate that Islam was the religion of the president.[13] The constitution has been amended twice. Article 6 was amended in 1981.[14]

After securing his control over the Syrian government, Assad initially chose his brother, Rifaat al-Assad, as his successor, but Rifaat's attempted power grab while Hafez was in a coma in 1984 led to his exile in Europe.[15] Following the incident, Bassel al-Assad was groomed to succeed his father.[16] Hafez's efforts to make Bassel the next president of Syria intensified in the early 1990s;[17] after Hafez's election victory in 1991 in an election where Hafez was the only candidate, the president was publicly referred to as "Abu Basil" (Father of Bassel).[18]

Shortly after Bassel died in a car accident in 1994, Bashar al-Assad was recalled to the Syrian Army. State propaganda soon began elevating Bashar's public image as "the hope of the masses" to prepare the public for a continuation of the rule of the Assad family.[19][20] Soon after the death of Bassel, Hafez al-Assad decided to make Bashar the new heir apparent.[21]

After the death of Hafez al-Assad on 10 June 2000, the Constitution was amended. The minimum age requirement for the presidency was lowered from 40 to 34, which was Bashar's age at the time.[22] A 9-member committee was founded, headed by Abdul Halim Khaddam, to oversee the transition period.[23] He was appointed by this committee as interim President of Syria on 10 June and was in consideration to be Assad's permanent successor, but instead helped Assad's son, Bashar.[24][25]

Bashar al-Assad with Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi in Damascus, 3 May 2023

The sole candidate of the presidential referendum,[26] Bashar al-Assad was subsequently confirmed president on 10 July 2000,[27] with 97.29% support for his leadership.[28] On 17 July 2000, Assad became president, succeeding his father, Hafez.[29] In line with his role as President of Syria, he was also appointed the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Armed Forces and Regional Secretary of the Ba'ath Party.[30] The existing personality cult portrays him as the "Young Leader" and the "Hope of the People."[31] Drawing influence from North Korea's hereditary leadership model,[32] official propaganda in Syria ascribed divine features to the Assad family, and reveres the Assad patriarchs as the founding fathers of modern Syria.[33]

A new constitution was approved in February 2012 after the start of the Syrian revolution.[34] A series of state elections were held every seven years which Assad won with overwhelming majority of votes. The elections are unanimously regarded by independent observers as a sham process and boycotted by the opposition.[b][c] The last two elections – held in 2014 and 2021 – were conducted only in areas controlled by the Syrian government during the country's ongoing civil war and condemned by the United Nations.[44][45][46]

The 2012 constitution ceased to be in effect after the fall of the Assad regime on 8 December 2024 and was officially phased out on 29 January 2025.[47][48]

Post-Ba'athist Syria (2024–present)

[edit]
Ahmed al-Sharaa with US President Donald Trump and Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia Mohammed bin Salman in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 14 May 2025

After the fall of the Assad regime, the position became vacant on 8 December 2024.[49] The duties of the head of state were carried out by the caretaker government, with Ahmed al-Sharaa serving as the de facto leader.[50] On 29 January 2025, during the Syrian Revolution Victory Conference in Damascus, the Syrian General Command officially appointed al-Sharaa as the president for the transitional period.[51] As president, al-Sharaa announced plans to issue a "constitutional declaration" as a legal reference following the repeal of the 2012 constitution of Ba'athist Syria.[52]

On 2 March, al-Sharaa declared the establishment of a committee tasked with drafting a constitutional declaration to guide the country's transition following the ousting of the Assad regime.[53] On 13 March, al-Sharaa signed an interim constitution for a transitional period of five years, enshrining Islamic law as a primary source of jurisprudence and promising to protect the rights of all Syria's ethnic and religious groups.[54] The Interim Constitution sets a presidential system with the executive power at the hands of the president who appoints the ministers,[55] without the position of prime minister.[56]

On 29 March, the Syrian transitional government was announced by al-Sharaa at a ceremony at the Presidential Palace in Damascus,[57] in which the new ministers were sworn in and delivered speeches outlining their agendas.[58] The government replaced the caretaker government, which was formed following the fall of the Assad regime.[59]

Powers and roles

[edit]
Politics of Syria

Arab League Member State of the Arab League

Constitution
Executive
Legislature
Judiciary
Subdivisions
Elections
Foreign relations

Executive power

[edit]

Under the 2025 Interim Constitution of Syria, the president of the Syrian Arab Republic serves as the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Army and Armed Forces and is responsible for:[60]

  • Managing national governance
  • Preserving territorial integrity and security
  • Protecting the interests of the people

The president has the authority to:[60]

  • Appoint, remove, and accept the resignations of ministers
  • Establish executive, regulatory, and control measures, as well as issue presidential orders and decisions following the law
  • Act as the state's representative in international relations and formalize treaties with foreign nations and international organizations
  • Declare general mobilization and war with the approval of the National Security Council
  • Grant special pardons and restore honor
  • Appoint and dismiss heads of diplomatic missions abroad and receive the credentials of foreign diplomatic representatives in Syria
  • Propose laws, issue laws approved by the People's Assembly, and veto laws within one month of receipt. If the People's Assembly passes a veto law with a two-thirds majority, the president is required to enact it by decree.

In the event of a severe threat to national unity, sovereignty, or the proper functioning of state institutions, the president may:[60]

  • Impose a state of emergency, either fully or partially, for up to three months, after:
    • Securing approval from the National Security Council
    • Consulting with the speaker of the People's Assembly and the president of the Constitutional Court
  • Extend the state of emergency only with the approval of the People's Assembly

Selection process

[edit]

Election

[edit]
Main article: Next Syrian presidential election

A presidential election in Syria is planned to take place within five years of the fall of the Assad regime in December 2024.[61] Until then, Syria will be governed by a transitional government led by Syrian President Ahmed al-Sharaa.[62]

Religion

[edit]

Article 3 states, "The religion of the President of the Republic is Islam; Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation.[60]

Inauguration

[edit]

The Interim Constitution provides the following oath or affirmation for the president, which must be taken before the People's Assembly.[60]

I swear by Almighty God to faithfully preserve the sovereignty of the State, the unity of the country, the integrity of its territories, and the independence of its decision, and to defend them, and to respect the law, protect the interests of the people, and strive with all sincerity and honesty to secure a decent life for them, achieve justice among them, and consolidate noble values and virtuous morals.

— Interim Constitution, Article 33, Sec. 2

Official residence

[edit]
Presidential Palace, the official residence

The Presidential Palace is the official residence of the President of Syria. It is located in the western part of Damascus, on Mount Mezzeh, just north of the Mezzeh neighborhood and next to Mount Qasioun, overlooking the city. The entire plateau of Mount Mezzeh is part of the palace compound, which is surrounded by a security wall and guard watchtowers. In front of the building is a large fountain, and the palace itself mostly consists of empty rooms clad in Carrara marble.[63][64] The Syrian caretaker government later started using the palace for diplomatic events.[65]

Before the construction of the new Presidential Palace on Mount Mazzeh in the early 1990s, Tishreen Palace served as the primary residence of the Assad family.[66] On 8 December 2024, during the fall of the Assad regime, anti-Assad forces took control of the palace.[67][68][69] After the regime fell, Syrians ransacked and looted the palace, inviting much of the public.[70][71][72]

Succession

[edit]

Article 34 of the Interim Constitution states, "In the event of a vacancy in the presidency, the Vice President shall assume the powers of the President of the Republic.".[60]

See also

[edit]

Explanatory notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Before being appointed president, al-Sharaa served as the country's de facto leader as the emir of Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham, General Commander, and head of the New Syrian Administration from 8 December 2024, until 29 January 2025, when he was appointed President of Syria by the Syrian General Command
  2. ^ Sources:[27][26][28][35][36][37]
  3. ^ Sources:[38][39][40][41][42][43]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Arrêtés Nos. 1, 2 & 3 - Bulletin hebdomadaire des actes administratifs du Haut-Commissariat" (in French). BnF Gallica. 8 October 1922. p. 268. Archived from the original on 1 July 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2025.
  2. ^ a b c Moubayed, Sami (16 December 2024). "From Barakat to Assad: The Syrian presidency in 100 years". Al Majalla. Archived from the original on 22 March 2025. Retrieved 22 March 2025.
  3. ^ Moubayed, Sami M. (2006). "Nami, Ahmad (1879-1960)". Steel & Silk: Men and Women Who Shaped Syria 1900-2000. Cune Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-1-885942-40-1.
  4. ^ Constitution of Syria (1930) Part I, Ch. 1, Art. 3; Part II, Ch. 3
  5. ^ "Syria Constitution (1950) - Article 53". Archived from the original on 28 December 2021.
  6. ^ Haddad, Ghassan Mohammed Rashad (2007). The Political History of Syria: The Making of the Syrian Constitution (in Arabic). Beirut: Dar Al-Nahar. p. 78.
  7. ^ Torrey, Gordon (1964). The Syrian Constitution of 1950: A Study in Constitutional Development. Oxford University Press. p. 223.
  8. ^ "Syrien, 21. Februar 1958: Gamad Abd al-Nasser als Präsident der Vereinigten Arabischen Republik". Direct Democracy. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020.
  9. ^ "Constitutional history of Syria". ConstitutionNet. Archived from the original on 29 March 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2025.
  10. ^ "Assad ends five decades of emergency rule". France 24. 21 April 2011.
  11. ^ Atassi, Karim, ed. (2018), "The Fourth Republic", Syria, the Strength of an Idea: The Constitutional Architectures of Its Political Regimes, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 252–337, ISBN 978-1-107-18360-5, retrieved 20 March 2025
  12. ^ Alianak, Sonia (2007). Middle Eastern Leaders and Islam: A Precarious Equilibrium. Peter Lang. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-8204-6924-9.
  13. ^ a b "FURTHER RIOTING IN SYRIA REPORTED". The New York Times. 28 February 1973. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 30 July 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2025.
  14. ^ "Amending the Syrian constitution... Achieving a quota or reaching a solution?". 18 June 2018. Archived from the original on 18 June 2018. Retrieved 24 March 2025.
  15. ^ "Assad son dies in car accident". Rome News Tribune. 21 June 1994. Archived from the original on 8 November 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
  16. ^ Brownlee, Jason (Fall 2007). "The Heir Apparency of Gamal Mubarak" (PDF). Arab Studies Journal: 36–56. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 April 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2013.
  17. ^ Ghadbian, Najib. "The New Asad: Dynamics of Continuity and Change in Syria" (PDF). p. 55 (4): 624–641. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2018.
  18. ^ Cook, Steven A. (December 1996). "On the Road: In Asad's Damascus". Middle East Quarterly: 39–43. Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 24 March 2013.
  19. ^ "Iran Report: June 19, 2000". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 11 November 2008. Archived from the original on 15 May 2022. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
  20. ^ Wedeen, Lisa (2015). Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric and Symbols in Contemporary Syria. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 28, 39, 60–61. ISBN 978-0-226-33337-3. Archived from the original on 2 December 2022. Retrieved 2 December 2022.
  21. ^ Zisser 2007, p. 35.
  22. ^ "The rise of Syria's controversial president Bashar al-Assad". ABC News. 7 April 2017. Archived from the original on 16 June 2017. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
  23. ^ "Bashar Aims to Consolidate Power in the Short-Term and to Open up Gradually". APS Diplomat News Service. 19 June 2000. Archived from the original on 10 June 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
  24. ^ Bowen, Andrew (17 September 2012). "Syria's Future and Iran's Great Game". The Majalla. Archived from the original on 28 October 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
  25. ^ Takieddine, Randa (1 April 2020). "Godfather of the Assad regime takes Rafik Hariri secrets to the grave". Arab News. Archived from the original on 20 June 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
  26. ^ a b Yacoub Oweis, Khaleb (17 May 2007). "Syria's opposition boycotts vote on Assad". Reuters. Damascus. Archived from the original on 6 April 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
  27. ^ a b "Syrians Vote For Assad in Uncontested Referendum". The Washington Post. Damascus. Associated Press. 28 May 2007. Archived from the original on 17 July 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  28. ^ a b Klatell, James (27 May 2007). "Syrians Vote in Presidential Referendum" Archived 6 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine. CBS News.
  29. ^ "ICG Middle East Report: Syria Under Bashar" (PDF). European Parliament. 11 February 2004. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
  30. ^ "Syrian President Bashar al-Assad: Facing down rebellion". BBC News. 21 October 2015. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
  31. ^ Pipes, Daniel (1995). Syria Beyond the Peace Process. Washington, D.C.: Washington Institute for Near East Policy. pp. 6, 7, 13–17. ISBN 0-944029-64-7.
  32. ^ Halasa, Malu; Omareen, Zaher; Mahfoud, Nawara (2014). Syria Speaks: Art and Culture from the Frontline. London: Saqi Books. pp. 125, 147–156, 161. ISBN 978-0-86356-787-2.
  33. ^ Shamaileh, Ammar (2017). Trust and Terror: Social Capital and the Use of Terrorism as a Tool of Resistance. New York: Routledge. pp. 66, 70–72, 82. ISBN 978-1-138-20173-6.
  34. ^ MacFarquhar, Neil; Cowell, Alan (27 February 2012). "Syrians Said to Approve Charter as Battles Go On". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 7 February 2025. Retrieved 7 February 2025.
  35. ^ Chulov, Martin (14 April 2014). "The one certainty about Syria's looming election – Assad will win" Archived 21 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian.
  36. ^ "Syria's Assad wins another term". BBC News. 29 May 2007. Archived from the original on 5 May 2019. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  37. ^ "Democracy Damascus style: Assad the only choice in referendum". The Guardian. 28 May 2007. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
  38. ^ Cheeseman, Nicholas (2019). How to Rig an Election. Yale University Press. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-0-300-24665-0. OCLC 1089560229.
  39. ^ Norris, Pippa; Martinez i Coma, Ferran; Grömping, Max (2015). "The Year in Elections, 2014". Election Integrity Project. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 21 May 2020. The Syrian election ranked as worst among all the contests held during 2014.
  40. ^ Jones, Mark P. (2018). Herron, Erik S; Pekkanen, Robert J; Shugart, Matthew S (eds.). "Presidential and Legislative Elections". The Oxford Handbook of Electoral Systems. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190258658.001.0001. ISBN 9780190258658. Archived from the original on 22 January 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2020. … unanimous agreement among serious scholars that... al-Assad's 2014 election... occurred within an authoritarian context.
  41. ^ Makdisi, Marwan (16 July 2014). "Confident Assad launches new term in stronger position". Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
  42. ^ Evans, Dominic (28 April 2014). "Assad seeks re-election as Syrian civil war rages". Reuters. Retrieved 13 March 2015.[dead link]
  43. ^ "UK's William Hague attacks Assad's Syria elections plan". BBC News. 15 May 2014. Archived from the original on 26 October 2022. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
  44. ^ "Syrians in Lebanon battle crowds to vote for Bashar al-Assad". The Guardian. 28 May 2014. Archived from the original on 20 March 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
  45. ^ "Bashar al-Assad sworn in for a third term as Syrian president". The Daily Telegraph. 16 July 2014. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  46. ^ Kossaify, Ephrem (22 April 2021). "UN reiterates it is not involved in Syrian presidential election". Arab News. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021.
  47. ^ "Syrian opposition leader says state institutions will be preserved in 18-month transition". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
  48. ^ "Syria suspends constitution, declares Ahmed al-Sharaa transitional president". al monitor. 29 January 2025. Retrieved 13 March 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  49. ^ "Syrian rebels say Syria is free of Assad". The Guardian. 8 December 2024. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
  50. ^ "Ahmed al-Sharaa named Syria's transitional president". www.bbc.com. 31 January 2025. Retrieved 22 March 2025. Ahmed al-Sharaa has been Syria's de facto leader since leading the overthrow of Bashar al-Assad
  51. ^ "General Command appoints Ahmed al-Sharaa as President of Syria". Enab Baladi. 29 January 2025. Retrieved 15 February 2025.
  52. ^ "Syria's interim president vows to preserve 'civil peace' in first address". France 24. 31 January 2025. Archived from the original on 30 January 2025. Retrieved 31 January 2025.
  53. ^ "Syria forms committee to draft constitutional declaration for country's transition". Anadolu Agency. 3 March 2025. Archived from the original on 18 March 2025. Retrieved 13 March 2025.
  54. ^ "Syrian leader signs constitution that puts the country under an Islamist group's rule for 5 years". Associated Press News. 13 March 2025. Retrieved 13 March 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  55. ^ "Syria's new constitution gives sweeping powers, ignores minority rights". rfi. 14 March 2025. Retrieved 15 March 2025.
  56. ^ "Syria's Constitutional Draft Set for Release as Fact-Finding Committee Begins Investigations". Watan News. 12 March 2025. Retrieved 16 March 2025.
  57. ^ "نص الإعلان الدستوري لسوريا 2025". الجزيرة نت (in Arabic). Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  58. ^ "وزراء الحكومة السورية يقدمون خططهم ويؤدون القسم الدستوري". Syria TV (in Arabic). 29 March 2025. Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  59. ^ "At protest, Tel Aviv mayor vows to shut down the country if the government ignores a High Court ruling". www.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  60. ^ a b c d e f "Constitutional Declaration of the Syrian Arab Republic" (PDF). 13 March 2025. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 March 2025. Retrieved 18 March 2025.
  61. ^ "Syria's Sharaa says it will take 4-5 years to hold presidential election". Reuters. 3 February 2025.
  62. ^ Press, the Associated (13 March 2025). "Syrian leader signs constitution that puts the country under an Islamist group's rule for 5 years". CNN. Retrieved 22 March 2025.
  63. ^ Stephen Talbot (2004). "Syria/Lebanon: The Occupier and the Occupied". PBS. Archived from the original on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
  64. ^ Carol Morello (8 May 1990). "Only Mystery Lives In Syria's Presidential Palace". Philadelphia Media Network. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
  65. ^ "French and German foreign ministers 'want new relationship with Syria'". The Guardian. 3 January 2025. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  66. ^ "As Bashar al-Assad got rich, he planted the seeds of his downfall". ABC News. 18 December 2024. Archived from the original on 1 April 2025. Retrieved 6 April 2025.
  67. ^ "Opposition fighters declare Syria's Damascus 'liberated', al-Assad ousted". Al Jazeera. 8 December 2024. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
  68. ^ Iskandarani, Aya (8 December 2024). "Rebels declare end of Assad rule in Syria". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
  69. ^ "Syrian rebels enter Damascus: everything we know so far". The Guardian. 8 December 2024. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
  70. ^ "Bashar al-Assad's palace burned and ransacked – in pictures". the Guardian. 9 December 2024. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
  71. ^ "Joy, fear and confusion in Damascus as Syrians welcome life after Assad". Archived from the original on 10 December 2024. Retrieved 13 December 2024.
  72. ^ "Candid photos of Syria's Assad expose a world beyond the carefully crafted and repressive rule". AP news. Archived from the original on 19 December 2024. Retrieved 6 April 2025.

Sources

[edit]
  • Solomon, Christopher (2022). "1:Introduction". In Search of Greater Syria: The History and Politics of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. New York: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-8386-0640-4.
  • Zisser, Eyal (2007). Commanding Syria: Bashar Al-Asad And the First Years in Power. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-153-3.
[edit]
Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 | Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Syria
5 views | Status: cached on June 10 2025 11:05:40
↧ Download as ZWI file
Encyclosphere.org EncycloReader is supported by the EncyclosphereKSF