Public execution

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A public execution is a form of capital punishment which "members of the general public may voluntarily attend."^[1] This definition excludes the presence of only a small number of witnesses called upon to assure executive accountability.^[2] The purpose of such displays has historically been to deter individuals from defying laws or authorities. Attendance at such events was historically encouraged and sometimes even mandatory.

Most countries have abolished the death penalty entirely, either in law or in practice.^[3] While today most countries regard public executions with distaste, they have been practiced at some point in history nearly everywhere.^[4] At many points in the past, public executions were preferred to executions behind closed doors because of their capacity for deterrence.^[5] However, the actual efficacy of this form of terror is disputed.^[6] They also allowed the convicted the opportunity to make a final speech, gave the state the chance to display its power in front of those who fell under its jurisdiction, and granted the public what was considered to be a great spectacle.^[7] Public executions also permitted the state to project its superiority over political opponents.^[7][5] People were publicly executed so that the public could see the consequences of committing a crime.

People were crucified in ancient Macedonia, Persia, Jerusalem, Phoenicia, Rome, and Carthage.^[8]

Public executions were common in China from at least the Tang Dynasty.^[9]

There are reports of public executions in early Islam.^[10][where?]

Documented public executions date back to at least the late medieval period, and peaked in the later sixteenth century.^[4] This peak was due in part to the witch trials of the early modern period. In the late Middle Ages, executioners used increasingly brutal methods designed to inflict pain on the victim while still alive and to generate a spectacle in order to deter others from committing crimes. The cruelty of the mode of execution (including the amount victims were tortured before the actual execution) was also more or less extreme depending on the crime itself.^[11] Punishments often invoked the "purifying" powers of earth (burial), water (drowning), and fire (burning alive). Victims were also decapitated, quartered, hanged, and beaten.^[12] Bodies or body parts were often displayed in public places and authorities took pains to ensure that remains would stay visible for as long as possible.^[13][4]

However, the death penalty was not used in all parts of Europe. Vladimir the Great abolished the death penalty in Kievan Rus' following his conversion to Christianity in 988.

During the 1970s, Liberian president William Tolbert used public hangings as a deterrent against crime, with sixteen convicted murderers hanged between 1971 and 1979. The public execution of the Harper Seven in 1979 over a series of witchcraft-related ritual murders attracted particular attention.^[14]

According to Amnesty International, in 2012 "public executions were known to have been carried out in Iran, North Korea, Saudi Arabia and Somalia."^[15] Amnesty International does not include Syria, Afghanistan, and Yemen in their list of public execution countries, but there have been reports of public executions carried out there by state and non-state actors, such as ISIL.^[16][17][18]

Kuwait has sometimes executed people in public. The prisoners are taken to the gallows and once a senior police officer gives the signed warrant, the prisoners are hanged.^[19]

Amnesty International's Interim Deputy Director for the Middle East and North Africa, Rawya Rageh, criticized Kuwait's execution of five individuals, including one for a drug-related offense, as a return to executions with "vigour," urging the establishment of a moratorium on executions towards abolishing the death penalty. The executions were announced on 27 July 2023, after a pause of five years starting from 2017.^[20]

During the seventeenth century, the use of premortem torture decreased; instead bodies were desecrated after death and for display purposes.^[4] By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the number of capital punishments in Western Europe had fallen by about 85% from the previous century as the legal system shifted toward one that considered human rights as well as a more rational approach to criminal justice that centered around identifying the best methods for deterrence.^[4][21] However, there were several resurgences throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, especially during times of social unrest.^[4] Executions were condemned by eighteenth-century Enlightenment thinkers like Jeremy Bentham and Cesare Beccaria.^[22] Enlightenment thinkers were not universally opposed to public executions—many anatomists found executions useful because they supplied healthy body parts to study and experiment on.^[23] People also found postmortem torture (which was typically part of a public execution) disrespectful to the dead and believed that it could prevent the victim from getting into heaven.^[24][4]

The first modern abolition of capital punishment was in Tuscany in 1786.^{[citation needed]}

In Europe, the 19th and early 20th centuries saw a shift away from the spectacle of public capital punishment and toward private executions and the deprivation of liberty (e.g. incarceration, probation, community service, etc.).^[25] This coincided with a general tendency to shield all death from public view.^[26]

In France, authorities continued public executions up until 1939.^[25] Executions were made private after a secret film of serial killer Eugen Weidmann's death by guillotine emerged and scandalized the process. Disturbing reports emerged of spectators soaking up Weidmann's blood in rags for souvenirs, and in response President Albert Lebrun banned public executions in France for "promoting baser instincts of human nature."^[27]

Nazi Germany utilized public execution by hanging, shooting, and decapitation.^[28]

In Great Britain, 1801 saw the last public execution at Tyburn Hill, after which all executions in York took place within the walls of York Castle (but still publicly) so that "the entrance to the town should not be annoyed by dragging criminals through the streets."^[29] In London, those sentenced to death at the Old Bailey would remain at Newgate Prison and wait for their sentences to be carried out in the street. As at Tyburn, the crowds who would come to watch continued to be large and unruly. The last public execution in Great Britain occurred in 1868,^[25] after which capital punishment was carried out in the privacy of prisons.

The last public execution in the United States occurred in 1936.^[25] As in Europe, the practice of execution was moved to the privacy of chambers. Viewing remains available for those related to the person being executed, victims' families, and sometimes reporters.

Frances Larson wrote in her 2014 book Severed: A History of Heads Lost and Heads Found:

"For as long as there were public executions, there were crowds to see them. In London in the early 19th century, there might have been 5,000 to watch a standard hanging, but crowds of up to 100,000 came to see a famous felon killed. The numbers hardly changed over the years. An estimated 20,000 watched Rainey Bethea hang in 1936, in what turned out to be the last public execution in the U.S."^[30]

In the US, members of the public can visit the jail where an execution is about to take place.^[31]

During the Australian colonial period, public executions continued until the second half of the 19th century, largely coinciding with the end of the convict era. They were abolished by the colonies of New South Wales (including present-day Queensland), Van Diemen's Land (present-day Tasmania) and Victoria in 1855, by South Australia in 1858, and by Western Australia in 1871.^[32] Public executions of Indigenous offenders continued in some jurisdictions in violation of the legislation.^[33]

In South Australia and Western Australia, public executions were subsequently reintroduced solely for Indigenous Australian offenders, in 1861 and 1875 respectively, on the basis that they were needed as a deterrent against frontier violence against white settlers.^[34][35] Public executions for Indigenous offenders were not formally abolished until 1971 in South Australia and 1952 in Western Australia, respectively, although the provisions of the criminal codes were long considered dormant.^[36] The last public execution in Western Australia took place in February 1892, where three Indigenous men convicted of murder were hanged at the scene of the crime near Halls Creek, Western Australia, in front of around 70 witnesses.^[37]

Public executions were abolished in New Zealand by the Executions of Criminals Act 1858, which specified that executions had to be carried out "within the walls or the enclosed yard of some gaol, or within some other enclosed space".^[38] The act came into force on 3 June 1858, three months after the country's last public hanging in central Auckland.^[39]

In the Australian-administered Territory of New Guinea, legally a League of Nations mandate after 1920, public executions were used as a "tool of government". In 1933, a district officer reported that two executions in New Britain had been carried out before crowds of hundreds of people, and that "execution of the murderers on the spot has done much to make these natives fall in with the wishes of the government".^[40]

Following the Japanese occupation of New Guinea, 22 New Guinean civilians convicted of collaboration offences – members of the Orokaiva people – were publicly executed by the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit (ANGAU) in 1943 and 1944.^[41] The hangings were intended as a deterrent against other prospective collaborationists, with the offenders "hung two at a time from early in the morning until late in the afternoon in front of thousands of local people".^[42]

• Public executions in Iran
• Public executions in North Korea