Austronesian language spoken in Taiwan
The Puyuma language or Pinuyumayan (Chinese : 卑南語 ; pinyin : Bēinányǔ ), is the language of the Puyuma , an indigenous people of Taiwan . It is a divergent Formosan language of the Austronesian family . Most speakers are older adults.
Puyuma is one of the more divergent of the Austronesian languages and falls outside reconstructions of Proto-Austronesian .
The internal classification of Puyuma dialects below is from Ting (1978) . Nanwang Puyuma is considered to be the relatively phonologically conservative but grammatically innovative, as in it preserves proto-Puyuma voiced plosives but syncretizes the use of both oblique and genitive case.
Proto-Puyuma
Nanwang
(Main branch )
Pinaski–Ulivelivek
Rikavung
Kasavakan–Katipul
Puyuma-speaking villages are:
Puyuma cluster ('born of the bamboo')
Katipul cluster ('born of a stone')
Alipai (Chinese : Pinlang 賓朗 )
Pinaski (Chinese : Hsia Pinlang 下賓朗 ); 2 km north of Puyuma/Nanwang, and maintains close relations with it
Pankiu (Chinese : Pankiu 班鳩 )
Kasavakan (Chinese : Chienhe 建和 )
Katratripul (Chinese : Chihpen 知本 )
Likavung (Chinese : Lichia 利嘉 )
Tamalakaw (Chinese : Taian 泰安 )
Ulivelivek (Chinese : Chulu 初鹿 )
Puyuma has 18 consonants and 4 vowels:
Note that Teng uses ⟨lr⟩ for /ɭ / and ⟨l⟩ for /l / , unlike in official version. The official orthography is used in this article.
Puyuma verbs have four types of focus:
Actor focus: Ø (no mark), -em-, -en- (after labials), me-, meʔ-, ma-
Object focus: -aw
Referent focus: -ay
Instrumental focus: -anay
There are three verbal aspects:
Perfect
Imperfect
Future
There are two modes:
Imperative
Hortative future
Affixes include:
Perfect: Ø (no mark)
Imperfect: Reduplication; -a-
Future: Reduplication, sometimes only -a-
Hortative future: -a-
Imperative mode: Ø (no mark)
Verb conjugation example for trakaw "to steal"
Active
Patient
Locative
Causative
Realis
Unmarked
trem akaw
trakawaw
trakaway
trakawanay
Progressive
trema trakaw
tra trakawaw
tra trakaway
tra trakawanay
Durative
trematra trakaw
tratra trakawaw
tratra trakaway
tratra trakawanay
Irrealis
tra trakaw
tra trakawi
tra trakawan
Imperative
trakaw
trakawi
trakawu
trakawan
Hortative
trem akawa
—
Puyuma has a verb-initial word order.
Articles include:
i – singular personal
a – singular non-personal
na – plural (personal and non-personal)
The Puyuma personal pronouns are:
Puyuma Personal Pronouns (Free)
Type of Pronoun
Nominative[ 9]
Oblique: Direct
Oblique: Indirect
Oblique: Non-Subject
Neutral
1s.
nanku
kanku, kananku
draku, drananku
kanku
kuiku
2s.
nanu
kanu, kananu
dranu, drananu
kanu
yuyu
3s.
nantu
kantu, kanantu
dratu, dranantu
kantaw
taytaw
1p. (incl.)
nanta
kanta, kananta
drata, drananta
kanta
taita
1p. (excl.)
naniam
kaniam, kananiam
draniam, drananiam
kaniam
mimi
2p.
nanemu
kanemu, kananemu
dranemu, drananemu
kanemu
muimu
3p.
nantu
kantu, kanantu
dratu, dranantu
kantaw
–
Puyuma Personal Pronouns (Bound)
Type of Pronoun
Nominative (Subject)
Nominative (Possessor of subject)
Genitive
1s.
=ku
ku=
ku=
2s.
=yu
nu=
nu=
3s.
–
tu=
tu=
1p. (incl.)
=ta
ta=
ta=
1p. (excl.)
=mi
niam=
mi=
2p.
=mu
mu=
mu=
3p.
–
tu=
tu=
The Puyuma affixes are:
Prefixes
ika-: the shape of; forming; shaping
ka-: stative marker
kara-: collective, to do something together
kare-: the number of times
ki-: to get something
kir-: to go against (voluntarily)
kitu-: to become
kur-: be exposed to; be together (passively)
m-, ma-: actor voice affix/intransitive affix
maka-: along; to face against
mara-: comparative/superlative marker
mar(e)-: reciprocal; plurality of relations
mi-: to have; to use
mu-: anticausative marker
mutu-: to become, to transform into
pa-/p-: causative marker
pu-: put
puka-: ordinal numeral marker
piya-: to face a certain direction
si-: to pretend to
tara-: to use (an instrument), to speak (a language)
tinu-: to simulate
tua-: to make, to form
u-: to go
ya-: to belong to; nominalizer
Suffixes
-a: perfective marker; numeral classifier
-an: nominalizer; collective/plural marker
-anay: conveyance voice affix/transitive affix
-aw: patient voice affix/transitive affix
-ay: locative voice affix/transitive affix
-i, -u: imperative transitive marker
Infixes
-in-: perfective marker
-em-: actor voice affix/intransitive affix
Circumfixes
-in-anan: the members of
ka- -an: a period of time
muri- -an: the way one is doing something; the way something was done
sa- -an: people doing things together
sa- -enan: people belonging to the same community
si- -an: nominalizer
Ca- -an, CVCV- -an: collectivity, plurality
Cauquelin, Josiane (1991). Dictionnaire puyuma-français . Paris: Ecole Française d'Extreme-Orient. ISBN 9782855395517 .
Cauquelin, Josiane (2004). Aborigines of Taiwan: The Puyuma – From Headhunting to the Modern World . London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 9780203498590 .
Teng, Stacy Fang-ching (2007). A Reference Grammar of Puyuma, an Austronesian Language of Taiwan (Ph.D. thesis). doi :10.25911/5D63C47EE2628 . hdl :1885/147042 .
Teng, Stacy Fang-ching (2008). A Reference Grammar of Puyuma, an Austronesian Language of Taiwan (PDF) . Pacific Linguistics 595. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. hdl :1885/28526 . ISBN 9780858835870 .
Teng, Stacy Fang-ching (2009). "Case Syncretism in Puyuma" (PDF) . Languages and Linguistics . 10 (4): 819–844. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-11.
Ting, Pang-hsin (1978). "Reconstruction of Proto-Puyuma Phonology" . Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology . 49 . Academia Sinica: 321–391. OCLC 4938029239 . Archived from the original on 13 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014 .
Teng, Fang-ching 鄧芳青 (2018). Bēinányǔ yǔfǎ gàilùn 卑南語語法概論 [Introduction to Puyuma Grammar ] (in Chinese). Xinbei shi: Yuanzhu minzu weiyuanhui. ISBN 978-986-05-5694-0 – via alilin.apc.gov.tw.