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Research stations in Antarctica

From Wikipedia - Reading time: 25 min

For analogous stations in the Arctic, see List of research stations in the Arctic.
Map of the country with research stations in Antarctica
Countries with research stations in Antarctica. Countries with permanent stations (Orange), Countries with summer-only stations (Blue).

Multiple governments have set up permanent research stations in Antarctica and these bases are widely distributed. Unlike the drifting ice stations set up in the Arctic, the current research stations of the Antarctic are constructed either on rocks or on ice that are (for practical purposes) fixed in place.

Many of these stations are staffed throughout the year. Of the 56 signatories to the Antarctic Treaty, a total of 55 countries (as of 2023)[1] operate seasonal (summer) and year-round research stations on the continent. The number of people performing and supporting scientific research on the continent and nearby islands varies from approximately 4,800 during the summer to around 1,200 during the winter (June).[2] In addition to these permanent stations, approximately 30 field camps are established each summer to support specific projects.[3][dubious – discuss]

History

[edit]

First bases

[edit]
The first base on Antarctica of Carstens Borchgrevink's Southern Cross Expedition (1899). The hut (HSM 22) still stands and is located on Cape Adare, the cape where in 1895 Borchgrevnik participated in the first documented landing on Antarctica.

During the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the late 19th century, the first bases on the continent were established. In 1898, Carsten Borchgrevink, a Norwegian/British explorer, led the British Antarctic Expedition to Cape Adare, where he established the first Antarctic base on Ridley Beach. This expedition is often referred to now as the Southern Cross Expedition, after the expedition's ship name. Most of the staff were Norwegian, but the funds for the expedition were British, provided by Sir George Newnes. The 10 members of this expedition explored Robertson Bay to the west of Cape Adare by dog teams, and later, after being picked up by the ship at the base, went ashore on the Ross Ice Shelf for brief journeys. The expedition hut is still in good condition and is visited frequently by tourists.

The hut was later occupied by Scott's Northern Party under the command of Victor Campbell for a year in 1911, after its attempt to explore the eastern end of the ice shelf discovered Roald Amundsen already ashore preparing for his assault on the South Pole.

"Omond House", the oldest permanent base on an Antarctic island, constructed in 1903 by the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition, which is today Orcadas Base

In 1903, William S. Bruce's Scottish National Antarctic Expedition set off to Antarctica, with one of its aims to establish a meteorological station in the area. After the expedition failed to find land, Bruce decided to head back to Laurie Island in the South Orkneys and find an anchorage there.[4] The islands were well-situated as a site for a meteorological station, and their relative proximity to the South American mainland allowed a permanent station to be established.[5] Bruce instituted a comprehensive program of work, involving meteorological readings, trawling for marine samples, botanical excursions, and the collection of biological and geological specimens.[4]

The major task completed during this time was the construction of a stone building, christened "Omond House".[6] This was to act as living accommodation for the parties that would remain on Laurie Island to operate the proposed meteorological laboratory. The building was constructed from local materials using the dry stone method, with a roof improvised from wood and canvas sheeting. The completed house was 20 feet by 20 feet square (6m × 6m), with two windows, fitted as quarters for six people. Rudmose Brown wrote: "Considering that we had no mortar and no masons' tools it is a wonderfully fine house and very lasting. I should think it will be standing a century hence ..."[7]

Bruce later offered to transfer the station and instruments to Argentina on the condition that the government committed itself to the continuation of the scientific mission.[8] Bruce informed the British officer William Haggard of his intentions in December 1903, and Haggard ratified the terms of Bruce's proposition.[9]

The Scotia sailed back for Laurie Island on 14 January 1904, transporting Argentinean officials from the Ministry of Agriculture, National Meteorological Office, Ministry of Livestock and National Postal and Telegraphs Office. In 1906, Argentina communicated to the international community the establishment of a permanent base on the South Orkney Islands.

Expansion

[edit]
Orcadas Base, c. 1927

Little happened for the following forty years.

The United States starting under the leadership of Admiral Richard E. Byrd constructed a series of five bases near the Bay of Whales named Little America between 1929 and 1958. All of them have now drifted off to sea on icebergs.

Before the start of the Second World War, German aircraft had dropped markers with swastikas across Queen Maud Land in an attempt to create a territorial claim (New Swabia).[10]

In 1943 the British launched Operation Tabarin, to establish a presence on the continent. The chief reason was to establish solid British claims to various uninhabited islands and parts of Antarctica, reinforced by Argentine sympathies toward Germany.

Led by Lieutenant James Marr, the 14-strong team left the Falkland Islands in two ships, HMS William Scoresby (a minesweeping trawler) and HMS Fitzroy, on Saturday, January 29, 1944. Marr had accompanied the British explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton on his final Antarctic expedition in 1921–22. Bases were established during February near the abandoned Norwegian whaling station on Deception Island, where the Union Flag was hoisted in place of Argentine flags, and at Port Lockroy (on February 11) on the coast of Graham Land. A further base was founded at Hope Bay on February 13, 1945, after a failed attempt to unload stores on February 7, 1944. These were the first permanent bases to be constructed on the Antarctic mainland.[11]

Discovery Hut (1902) at Hut Point Peninsula of Ross Island, Antarctica, one of the earliest repeatedly temporarily used dwellings on Antarctica. In the background McMurdo Station, the largest on Antarctica today, with cargo operations of the supply ship MV American Tern of Operation Deep Freeze 2007.

A massive expansion in international activity followed the war. Chile organized its First Chilean Antarctic Expedition in 1947–48. Among other accomplishments, it brought the Chilean president Gabriel González Videla to personally inaugurate one of its bases, thereby becoming the first head of state to set foot on the continent.[12] Signy Research Station (UK) was established in 1947, Australia's Mawson Station in 1954, Dumont d'Urville Station was the first French station in 1956. In that same year, the United States built McMurdo Station and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the Soviet Union built Mirny Station.

The Antarctic Treaty

[edit]
Main article: Antarctic Treaty System

The Antarctic Treaty, first signed on 1 December 1959 by 12 countries, stated that scientific investigations in research stations in Antarctica can continue, but all observations must be shared.[13] The Antarctic Treaty also stated that Antarctica can only be used for peaceful purposes and any exploitation of the continent such as mining is forbidden, thus scientific research is the only activity that may be performed on Antarctica.[14] As more countries established research stations on Antarctica, the number of signatories of the treaty increased, with 56 signatories as of 2023, 55 of whom utilize their rights and operate research stations in Antarctica.[13] 7 of the signatories also laid claims on Antarctica (and 4 reserved their rights to do so), with the intention of expanding research in those territories in the future. However, research facilities have also been established by countries in the claimed area of other countries.

Permanent active stations

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The percentage of the summer Antarctic population (formed by Antarctic and Subantarctic research stations) each country makes up[needs update]

  United States (24.98%)
  Argentina (12.66%)
  Chile (9.87%)
  United Kingdom (6.13%)
  France (6.03%)
  Australia (5.88%)
  Russia (5.30%)
  Japan (3.53%)
  China (3.45%)
  Italy (3.22%)
  South Africa (2.86%)
  South Korea (2.70%)
  India (1.89%)
  Germany (1.70%)
  New Zealand (1.62%)
  Spain (1.25%)
  Norway (1.21%)
  Other (5.72%)

The United States maintains the southernmost base, Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the largest base and research station in Antarctica, McMurdo Station. The second-southernmost base is the Chinese Kunlun Station at 80°25′2″S during the summer season, and the Russian Vostok Station at 78°27′50″S during the winter season.

Name Location Country Administration Year est. Max.
pers. 		Summer
pop. 		Winter
pop. 		UTC offset Mean annual
temp.
(°C)
Amundsen–Scott South Pole Geographical South Pole  United States United States Antarctic Program 1957 153 150 49 +12[a] −49.5
Arctowski King George Island  Poland Polish Academy of Sciences 1977 40 40 16 −3 −1.6
Arrival Heights Laboratory[15] Ross Island  New Zealand Antarctica New Zealand 1959 +12[a] −19.7
Artigas King George Island  Uruguay Uruguayan Antarctic Institute 1984 60 9 8 −3 −0.9
Arturo Prat Greenwich Island  Chile Chilean Navy 1947 30 30 8 −3 −2.0
Belgrano II Coats Land  Argentina Instituto Antartico Argentino 1979 20 24 19 −3 −13.3
Bellingshausen King George Island  Russia Russian Antarctic Expedition 1968 40 40 20 −3 −2.3
Bharati Larsemann Hills  India National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research 2012 47 46 23 +5:30 −10.2
Carlini King George Island  Argentina Instituto Antartico Argentino 1953 80 80 29 −3 −1.6
Casey Vincennes Bay  Australia Australian Antarctic Division 1957 99 99 21 +8[a] −5.9
Comandante Ferraz King George Island  Brazil Brazilian Antarctic Program 1984 64 35 15 −3 −1.8
Concordia Dome C, Antarctic Plateau  Italy
 France 		National Antarctic Research Program, IPEV 2005 80 70 13 +8[a] −51.7
Davis Princess Elizabeth Land  Australia Australian Antarctic Division 1957 91 91 17 +7 −7.3
Dumont d'Urville Adélie Land  France IPEV 1956 90 90 24 +10 −11.1
Eco-Nelson Nelson Island  Czech Republic Czech Antarctic Foundation 1988 8 5 5 −3 −2.3
Eduardo Frei and Villa Las Estrellas King George Island  Chile Chilean Air Force 1969 150 150 80 −3 −2.3
Escudero King George Island  Chile Instituto Antártico Chileno 1995 90 60 2 −3 −2.3
Esperanza Hope Bay  Argentina Instituto Antartico Argentino 1953 90 116 56 −3 −4.6
GARS Cape Legoupil  Germany German Aerospace Center 1991 10 −3.9
General Bernardo O'Higgins Cape Legoupil  Chile Chilean Army 1948 60 52 24 −3 −3.9
Great Wall King George Island  China Polar Research Institute of China 1985 60 60 13 −3 −2.5
Halley Brunt Ice Shelf  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey[16] 2013 52 70 17 −3 −18.5
Jang Bogo Terra Nova Bay  South Korea Korea Polar Research Institute 2014 62 62 23 +11 −15.1
King Sejong King George Island  South Korea Korea Polar Research Institute 1988 68 68 22 −3 −1.8
Maitri Schirmacher Oasis  India National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research 1989 65 45 25 +5:30 −9.7
Marambio Marambio Island  Argentina Instituto Antartico Argentino 1969 165 165 70 −3 −8.1
Mawson Mac Robertson Land  Australia Australian Antarctic Division 1954 53 53 15 +6 −8.3
McMurdo Ross Island  United States United States Antarctic Program 1956 1200 1000 153 +12[a] −17.3
Mirny Davis Sea  Russia Russian Antarctic Expedition 1956 50 50 25 +6 −11.3
Neumayer III Atka Bay  Germany Alfred Wegener Institute 2009 60 60 9 0 −16.0
Novolazarevskaya Queen Maud Land  Russia Russian Antarctic Expedition 1961 70 70 40 0 −10.3
Orcadas Laurie Island, South Orkney Islands  Argentina Instituto Antartico Argentino, Argentine Navy 1903 65 35 17 −3 −3.0
Palmer Anvers Island  United States United States Antarctic Program 1968 46 44 13 −3 −1.8
Progress Prydz Bay  Russia Russian Antarctic Expedition 1988 50 50 25 −5 −9.4
Qinling [17] Inexpressible Island, Terra Nova Bay  China Polar Research Institute of China 2024 80 80 30[18] +12
Rothera[19] Adelaide Island  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1975 136 160 27 −3 −5.3
San Martín Barry Island  Argentina Instituto Antartico Argentino 1951[b] 21 19 21 −3 −4.6
SANAE IV Vesleskarvet, Queen Maud Land  South Africa South African National Antarctic Programme 1997 80 110 15 +2 −16.5
Scott Base Ross Island  New Zealand Antarctica New Zealand 1957 86 78 11 +12[a] −19.6
Showa East Ongul Island  Japan National Institute of Polar Research 1957 130 170 40 +3 −10.5
Troll Queen Maud Land  Norway Norwegian Polar Institute 1990 70 45 7 0 −18.0
Vernadsky Galindez Island  Ukraine National Antarctic Scientific Center of Ukraine 1994 24 30 12 −3 −3.3
Vostok Antarctic Ice Sheet  Russia Russian Antarctic Expedition 1957 30 30 15 +6 −55.2
Zhongshan Larsemann Hills, Prydz Bay  China Polar Research Institute of China 1989 60 60 17 +7 −11.2

Subantarctic stations

[edit]
See also: Subantarctic region and List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands
Name Location Country Administration Year est. Summer
pop. 		Winter
pop. 		UTC
offset 		Mean annual
temp.
(°C)
Alfred Faure Île de la Possession  France French Polar Institute 1963 45 24 +5 5.3
Bird[21] Bird Island  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1957 10 4 −2 −0.2
Campbell Campbell Island  New Zealand MetService 1946 0 0 +12[a] 7.0
Gough Gough Island  South Africa South African Weather Service 1956 10 10 0 11.5
King Edward Point[22] King Edward Point  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1950 22 12 −2 1.6
Macquarie Macquarie Island  Australia Australian Antarctic Division 1948 40 16 +10[a] 4.9
Marion Prince Edward Islands  South Africa South African National Antarctic Programme 1948 18 18 +3 5.5
Norvegia Bouvet Island  Norway Norwegian Polar Institute 1927 6 0 -1
Port-aux-Français Kerguelen Islands  France French Polar Institute 1963 120 45 +5 5.2

Summer-only active stations

[edit]
Name Location Country Admin. Year est. Max. pers. Summer pop. UTC offset Mean annual temp. (°C)
Aboa Queen Maud Land  Finland Finnish Antarctic Research Program 1988 17 13 −15.3
Brown Paradise Harbor  Argentina Instituto Antártico Argentino 1951 12 12 −3 −2.4
Cámara Half Moon Island  Argentina Instituto Antartico Argentino 1953 22 20 −3 −2.4
Carvajal Adelaide Island  Chile Instituto Antártico Chileno 1984 46 46 −9.8
Collins Fildes Peninsula  Chile Instituto Antártico Chileno 2006 6
Dallmann Carlini Station  Germany Alfred Wegener Institute 1994 16 16 −2.4
Deception Deception Island  Argentina Instituto Antartico Argentino 1948 36 18 −3 −3.0
Dirck Gerritsz Laboratory Rothera Station  Netherlands British Antarctic Survey, Netherlands Polar Programme 2013 10 10 −5.0
Dobrowolski Bunger Hills, Wilkes Land  Poland Polish Academy of Sciences 1956 10 10 −9.1
Elichiribehety Hope Bay  Uruguay Uruguayan Antarctic Institute 1945 8 7 −4.8
Gabriel de Castilla Deception Island  Spain Spanish National Research Council 1989 36 33 −0.7
Gondwana Transantarctic Mountains  Germany Alfred Wegener Institute 1983
González Videla Waterboat Point, Graham Land  Chile Chilean Air Force 1951 15 15 −6.7
Guillermo Mann Cape Shirreff  Chile Instituto Antártico Chileno 1991 8 8 0.4
Jinnah Sør Rondane Mountains, Queen Maud Land  Pakistan Pakistan Antarctic Programme 1991
Juan Carlos I South Bay, Livingston Island  Spain Spanish National Research Council 1988 50 27 −3 −1.2
Julio Ripamonti Ardley Island  Chile Instituto Antártico Chileno 1982 4 -3
Kohnen Queen Maud Land  Germany Alfred Wegener Institute 2001 28 6 −42.2
Kunlun Dome A  China Polar Research Institute of China 2009 26 26 −51.4
Law-Racoviță-Negoiță Larsemann Hills, Princess Elizabeth Land  Romania Romanian Polar Research Institute 1986 13
Lenie Admiralty Bay  United States United States Antarctic Program 1985 2
Machu Picchu Admiralty Bay, King George Island  Peru Instituto Antártico Peruano[23] 1989 30 30 −2.1
Maldonado Greenwich Island  Ecuador Instituto Antártico Ecuatoriano 1990 34 32
Matienzo Graham Land  Argentina Instituto Antartico Argentino 1961 12 12 −3 −5.0
Melchior Melchior Islands  Argentina Instituto Antartico Argentino 1947 15 12 −3 −2.9
Mendel James Ross Island  Czech Republic Masaryk University 2007 20 20 −6.8
Molodyozhnaya Thala Hills, East Antarctica  Russia Russian Antarctic Expedition 1962 15 15 −11.0
Petrel Dundee Island  Argentina Instituto Antartico Argentino 1967 45 25 −3 −7.1
Port Lockroy[24][25] Goudier Island  United Kingdom United Kingdom Antarctic Heritage Trust 1944 4
Primavera Graham Land  Argentina Instituto Antartico Argentino 1977 18 18 −3 −3.0
Princess Elisabeth Queen Maud Land  Belgium International Polar Foundation 2007 40 22 −18.0
Risopatrón Robert Island  Chile Instituto Antártico Chileno 1949 6 −2.3
Shirreff Cape Shirreff  United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1996 6
Signy[26] Signy Island, South Orkney Islands  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1947 8 14 −2.1
Sobral Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf  Argentina Instituto Antártico Argentino 1965 7 6 −3
St. Kliment Ohridski Emona Anchorage, Livingston Island  Bulgaria Bulgarian Antarctic Institute 1988 22 22 −3 −1.0
Svea Queen Maud Land  Sweden Swedish Polar Research Secretariat 1988 5
Taishan[27] Princess Elizabeth Land  China Polar Research Institute of China 2014 20 20 −30.3
TARS Horseshoe Island  Turkey Turkish Polar Research Program 2019 50 26
Tor Queen Maud Land  Norway Norwegian Polar Institute 1993 7
Union Glacier Union Glacier  Chile Chilean Army, Chilean Navy, Chilean Air Force, Instituto Antártico Chileno 2014 70 −3
Vechernyaya[28] Mount Vechernyaya, Thala Hills  Belarus National Academy of Sciences of Belarus 2007 12 11
Wasa Queen Maud Land  Sweden Swedish Polar Research Secretariat 1989 20 13 −15.3
Yelcho South Bay, Doumer Island  Chile Instituto Antártico Chileno 1962 28 28 2.0
Zucchelli Terra Nova Bay  Italy National Antarctic Research Program, ENEA, CNR 1986 120 120 +12[a][29] −14.0

Maps of active stations

[edit]
class=notpageimage|
Active research stations in Antarctica, except the Antarctic Peninsula. Red squares represent summer-only stations.
class=notpageimage|
Active research stations on the Antarctic Peninsula, except the South Shetland Islands. Red squares represent summer-only stations.
class=notpageimage|
Active research stations in the South Shetland Islands. Red squares represent summer-only stations.

Inactive stations

[edit]
Name Location Country Admin. Year est. Type UTC
offset 		Mean annual
temp.
(°C) 		Year closed Status
Aguirre Cerda Deception Island  Chile Instituto Antártico Chileno 1955 Summer 1967 Destroyed
Arturo Parodi Ellsworth Land  Chile Instituto Antártico Chileno 1999 Summer 2014 Dismantled
Asuka Queen Maud Land  Japan National Institute of Polar Research 1985 Summer 1992 Closed, under snow
Belgrano I Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf  Argentina Instituto Antártico Argentino 1955 Permanent −3 1980 Abandoned, lost
Belgrano III Berkner Island  Argentina Instituto Antártico Argentino 1980 Permanent −3 1984 Abandoned
Borga Borg Massif  South Africa South African National Antarctic Programme 1969 Summer 1976 Closed
Brockton Ross Ice Shelf  United States United States Navy 1965 Summer 1972 Abandoned
Byrd Marie Byrd Land  United States United States Antarctic Program 1957 Summer −28.1 2005 Abandoned
Charcot[30] Adélie Land  France French Polar Institute 1957 Permanent 1959 Closed, abandoned
Dakshin Gangotri Dakshin Gangotri Glacier  India National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research 1984 Permanent 1990 Closed, support base
Dome Fuji Queen Maud Land  Japan National Institute of Polar Research 1995 Summer −54.3 2019 Closed
Drescher Queen Maud Land  Germany Alfred Wegener Institute 1986 Summer 2016 Closed
Druzhba [ru] Zavadovskiy Island  Soviet Union Soviet Antarctic Expedition 1960 Winter 1960 Closed
Druzhnaya I [ru] Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf  Soviet Union Soviet Antarctic Expedition 1975 Summer 1986 Closed, lost
Druzhnaya II [ru] Lassiter Coast  Soviet Union Soviet Antarctic Expedition 1982 Summer 1986 Closed
Druzhnaya III Queen Maud Land  Soviet Union Soviet Antarctic Expedition 1982 Summer 1991 Closed
Druzhnaya IV [ru] Princess Elizabeth Land  Russia Russian Antarctic Expedition 1987 Summer 2013 Closed
East Base Stonington Island  United States United States Antarctic Service Expedition 1941 Permanent 1948 Closed
Eights Ellsworth Land[31]  United States National Science Foundation 1963 Permanent 1965 Closed
Ellsworth Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf  United States
 Argentina 		United States Navy, Instituto Antártico Argentino 1957 Permanent −22 1962 Closed, lost
Faraday[32] Galindez Island  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1947 Permanent −3.3 1996 Closed, became Vernadsky
Filchner Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf  Germany Alfred Wegener Institute 1982 Summer 1999 Abandoned, lost
Georg Forster [de] Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf  Germany Alfred Wegener Institute 1976 Permanent 1993 Dismantled
Georg von Neumayer [de] Princess Martha Coast  Germany Alfred Wegener Institute 1981 Permanent 1993 Closed, sunk in ice
Giacomo Bove[33] Italia Valley  Italy Renato Cepparo Expedition 1976 Summer 1976 Closed, sabotaged
Hallett Hallett Peninsula  United States
 New Zealand 		International Geophysical Year 1956 Summer 1973 Dismantled
King Baudouin [fr] Princess Ragnhild Coast  Belgium
 Netherlands 		National Center for Polar Research 1958 Permanent 1967 Closed, abandoned
Komsomolskaya Queen Mary Land  Soviet Union Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute 1957 Permanent −52 1962 Abandoned
Lazarev [ru] Lazarev Ice Shelf  Soviet Union Soviet Antarctic Expedition 1959 Permanent 1961 Closed, abandoned
Leningradskaya Oates Coast, Victoria Land  Russia Russian Antarctic Expedition 1971 Summer −14.2 2008 Closed
Little America Ross Ice Shelf  United States United States Navy 1929 Permanent −22 1987 Lost
Little Rockford Marie Byrd Land  United States United States Navy 1958 Summer 1965 Closed, abandoned
Maudheim [no] Queen Maud Land  Norway
 Sweden
 United Kingdom 		Norwegian–British–Swedish Antarctic Expedition 1950 Permanent 1952 Closed
Mir [ru] Drygalski Island  Soviet Union Soviet Antarctic Expedition 1960 Winter 1960 Closed
Mizuho Mizuho Plateau  Japan National Institute of Polar Research 1970 Summer 1987 Closed
Neumayer II Queen Maud Land  Germany Alfred Wegener Institute 1992 Permanent 2009 Dismantled
Norway [no] Fimbul Ice Shelf  Norway
 South Africa 		Sixth Norwegian Antarctic Expedition 1957 Permanent 1960 Closed
Oazis 2 [ru] Bunger Hills  Russia Russian Antarctic Expedition 1987 Summer 1995 Closed
Pionérskaya [ru] Queen Mary Land  Soviet Union Soviet Antarctic Expedition 1956 Permanent −38 1959 Closed
Plateau Queen Maud Land  United States United States Navy, National Science Foundation 1965 Permanent −56.7 1969 Closed
Pobeda [ru] Queen Mary Land  Soviet Union Soviet Antarctic Expedition 1960 Summer 1960 Abandoned, lost
Pole of Inaccessibility Kemp Land  Soviet Union Soviet Antarctic Expedition 1958 Summer −58.2 1958 Closed
Port Martin Cape Margerie  France French Antarctic Expedition 1950 Permanent 1952 Partly destroyed in a fire, closed
Russkaya Marie Byrd Land  Russia Russian Antarctic Expedition 1980 Summer −6 −12.4 1990 Closed
SANAE I Fimbul Ice Shelf  South Africa South African National Antarctic Programme 1960 Permanent 1963 Closed, abandoned
SANAE II Fimbul Ice Shelf  South Africa South African National Antarctic Programme 1971 Permanent 1979 Closed, abandoned
SANAE III Fimbul Ice Shelf  South Africa South African National Antarctic Programme 1979 Permanent 1997 Closed, abandoned
Sarie Marais Ahlmann Ridge  South Africa South African National Antarctic Programme 1982 Summer 2001 Closed, decommissioned
Siple Ellsworth Land  United States Stanford University's STAR Lab 1973 Summer 1988 Closed
Sodruzhestvo [ru] Amery Ice Shelf  Soviet Union Soviet Antarctic Expedition 1971 Summer 1974 Closed
Sovetskaya Kaiser Wilhelm II Land  Soviet Union Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute 1958 Permanent 1959 Closed, abandoned
Soyuz Prince Charles Mountains  Soviet Union Soviet Antarctic Expedition 1982 Permanent +5 2007 Closed
Station B[34] Deception Island  United Kingdom Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition 1944 Permanent 1969 Closed, abandoned
Station C[35] Cape Geddes  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1946 Summer 1947 Closed, abandoned
Station D[36] Hope Bay  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1945 Permanent 1964 Closed, became ECARE
Station E[37] Stonington Island  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1946 Permanent 1975 Closed
Station G[38] Admiralty Bay  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1947 Permanent 1961 Closed, demolished
Station J[39] Prospect Point  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1957 Permanent 1959 Closed, removed
Station N[40] Anvers Island  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1955 Permanent 1971 Destroyed in a fire, demolished
Station O[41] Danco Island  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1956 Permanent 1959 Closed, demolished
Station T[42] Adelaide Island  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1961 Permanent 1977 Closed, became Carvajal
Station V[43] View Point  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1953 Permanent 1963 Closed, became Jorge Boonen
Station W[44] Detaille Island  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1956 Permanent 1959 Closed
Station Y[45] Horseshoe Island  United Kingdom British Antarctic Survey 1955 Permanent 1960 Closed
Vanda Victoria Land  New Zealand Antarctica New Zealand 1969 Summer −19.7 1995 Closed
Vostok I [ru] East Antarctica  Soviet Union Russian Academy of Sciences 1957 Permanent 1957 Closed, abandoned
Weddell 1 [ru] Weddell Sea  Russia
 United States 		Russian Antarctic Expedition, National Science Foundation 1992 Summer 1992 Evacuated
Wilkes Clark Peninsula  United States
 Australia 		United States Navy
Australian Antarctic Division 		1957 Permanent +8 1969 Closed, Partially Abandoned[c]
World Park Cape Evans  International Greenpeace 1987 Permanent 1991 Dismantled

Impact and pollution

[edit]
Further information: Climate change in Antarctica
A private Il-76 airplane landing onto a ice runway at Union Glacier (upper-left), which causes black carbon concentrations to increase in the surrounding snow (right), as observed through sample collection (lower-left).[47]

In 2023 a research report from an Australian team[48] found that the pollution left by international research stations was comparable to that seen in some of the busiest ports in the world.

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Observes daylight saving time.
  2. ^ This base was closed in 1960 and reopened on 21 March 1976.[20]
  3. ^ Transmitter hut used as field hut and temporary accommodation for nearby Casey Station.[46]

See also

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scientific stations in Antarctica.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "01. Antarctic Treaty, done at Washington December 1, 1959". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2023-10-24.
  2. ^ Silja Vöneky; Sange Addison-Agyei (May 2011). "Oxford Public International Law". Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law.
  3. ^ "4.0 Antarctica - Past and Present". Archived from the original on 2020-01-18. Retrieved 2018-04-06.
  4. ^ a b Rudmose Brown, R. N.; Pirie, J. H.; Mossman, R. C. (2002). The Voyage of the Scotia. Edinburgh: Mercat Press. pp. 34–57. ISBN 1-84183-044-5.
  5. ^ Rudmose Brown, Pirie & Mossman 2002, p. 57.
  6. ^ "Voyage of the Scotia 1902–04: The Antarctic". Glasgow Digital Library. Archived from the original on 2008-03-11. Retrieved 2008-06-30.
  7. ^ Speak, Peter (2003). William Speirs Bruce: Polar Explorer and Scottish Nationalist. Edinburgh: NMS Publishing. p. 85. ISBN 1-901663-71-X.
  8. ^ Escude, Carlos; Cisneros, Andres. "Historia General de las Relaciones Exteriores de la Republica Argentina" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on May 4, 2012. Retrieved July 6, 2012.
  9. ^ Moneta, Jose Manuel (1954). Cuatro Años en las Orcadas del Sur (9th ed.). Ediciones Peuser.
  10. ^ "HMS Carnarvon Castle 1943". Archived from the original on 2015-07-06. Retrieved 2014-03-05.
  11. ^ "Spirit of Scott 2012: Britain's polar interests lie under a cloud". The Daily Telegraph. 27 November 2012. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12.
  12. ^ Antarctica and the Arctic: the complete encyclopedia, Volume 1, by David McGonigal, Lynn Woodworth, page 98
  13. ^ a b "The Antarctic Treaty | Antarctic Treaty". www.ats.aq. Retrieved 2023-10-24.
  14. ^ "Mineral resources". Discovering Antarctica. Retrieved 2023-10-24.
  15. ^ "New Zealand". Antarctic Treaty. Archived from the original on 5 March 2014. Retrieved 25 September 2017.
  16. ^ "Halley VI Antarctic Research Station". Archello.com. Archived from the original on 2014-01-16. Retrieved 2014-01-16.
  17. ^ China opens first Antarctic research station due south of Australia and New Zealand ABC News, 8 February 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024
  18. ^ Zhao Lei, China opens fifth Antarctic research station China Daily via Asia News Network, 8 February 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
  19. ^ "Rothera Station R". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
  20. ^ "San Martín Base" (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Fundación Marambio. 2024. Retrieved 27 April 2024.
  21. ^ "Bird Island Station BI". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
  22. ^ "King Edward Pont Station M". British Antarctic Survey. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
  23. ^ "La Antartida". Archived from the original on 2014-05-12. Retrieved 2014-05-11.
  24. ^ "Port Lockroy Diaries". United Kingdom Antarctic Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on 20 December 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2018.
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