Shakti

Shakti (Devanagari: शक्ति, IAST: Śakti; lit. 'energy, ability, strength, effort, power, might, capability')^[1] in Hinduism, is the "Universal Power" that underlies and sustains all existence. In Hindu theological view, Shakti is "pure consciousness" and the energizing power of Hindu Gods. Conceived of as feminine in essence, Shakti is generally personified as the wife of a particular Hindu deity, especially of Shiva.

Shakti and Shiva are held as the feminine and masculine principles that are complementary to each other. Shakti, as prakriti ('nature'), is believed to have brought the primal male (purusha) into existence. The feminine Shakti comes into being as part of the lila ('divine play') with the masculine (Shiva), who is considered a passive complementary to the all-powerful active feminine. The God Shiva being "nonactivated Eternity", while the Shakti "activated Time". "Shiva without Shakti is but a corpse, it is said." The God Shiva says: "O Goddess I am the body (deha) and you are the conscious spirit within the body (dehin)". In Jungian psychological view, the concept of Anima/animus that animates all humans, is considered the "spiritual equivalent" of Shakti.

In the Hindu denomination of Shaktism, Shakti is worshipped exclusively as the Brahman. The concept of the Brahman in Hinduism is considered the same as Shakti, it is said "Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman." The term Shakta is used for the description of people and customs associated with Shakti worship. The Shakta pithas are shrines, which are believed to be the sacred seats of Shakti.

According to the Monier-Williams dictionary, Shakti (Śakti) is the Sanskrit feminine term meaning "energy, ability, strength, effort, power, might, capability", and "capacity for" or "power over".^[1][2]

Though the term Shakti has broad implications, it mostly denotes "power or energy".^[2] Metaphysically, Shakti refers to the "energetic principle" of the fundamental reality, ideated as "primordial power".^[2]

Shakti, is principally identified with the feminine, and with the numerous Hindu goddesses, who are seen as "tangible" expressions-visible personifications of the intangible Shakti.^[2] The formulation of such an idea for Shakti took place over many centuries.^[2]

Relatedly, the term Shakta (Sanskrit: शक्त, Śakta) is used for people and customs associated with Shakti worship.^[3] The term Shakta became popular from the ninth-century onwards, before that the term Kula or Kaula, which referred to clans of female ancestry, besides to the menstrual and sexual fluids of females, was used to describe Shakti followers.^[3]

The origins of the Shakti concept are prevedic.^[4] Shakti worship customs were found in Paleolithic context in the Son River valley, where a triangular stone known as the Baghor stone, estimated to have been created around 9,000–8,000 BCE was found.^[5] The representation of Shakti in a stone is considered an early example of a yantra.^[6] Kenoyer, part of the team that excavated the stone, considered it is highly probable that the stone was associated with Shakti.^[7]

Scholars assume goddess worship was prevalent in the Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300 BCE) as many terracotta female figurines with smoke-blacked headgears, suggesting their use in rituals, had been found in almost all the houses of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.^[8] Numerous artefacts that appear to portray female deities were also found.^[9] This development however is not assumed to be the earliest precursor of goddess worship in India; it has evolved for over a long period of time before.^[9]

The Veda Samhitas are the oldest scriptures that specified the Hindu goddesses. The Rigveda and the Atharvaveda are the main sources of knowledge about various goddesses from the Vedic period.^[9] Ushas, the goddess of dawn was the most praised. Though male deities such as Indra and Agni have been more popular in the Vedic era, female deities were represented as personifications of important aspects like Earth (Prithvi), Mother of Gods (Aditi), Night (Ratri), and Speech (Vāc/Vāk).^[9]

The Devīsūkta in the Rigveda, addressed to the goddess Vāc, became the progenitor of goddess theology that evolved later.^[9] Here, Vāc stated: "I bend the bow for Rudra that his arrow may strike and slay the hater of devotion. I rouse and order battle for the people, and I have penetrated Earth and Heaven".^[9] This hymn presented the goddess as an all powerful pervasive being, who is both "immanent and transcendent", and is bestower of power to both gods and humans.^[9] The prominent characteristics of goddess Vāc were later incorporated into the identity of Saraswati, who was a minor river goddess in the Vedas, but later became the goddess of knowledge and the "Mother of the Vedas".^[9]

Most of the goddesses in the Vedic era are presented as wives of the gods.^[9] They had no special powers, nor an individual name either, rather they took their husbands name with feminine suffixes, as with Indrani--the wife of Indra.^[9] Though the goddesses had no power, one Rigvedic hymn (10.159) addressed Indrani as Śacī Poulomī and presented her as the "deification" of Indra's power. The term Śacī meant "the rendering of powerful or mighty help, assistance, aid, especially of the 'deeds of Indra'."^[9] This use of the term Śacī is seen as a major step in the later conception of Śakti as the divine power-separate from a deity, and not inherently present within it.^[9]

In later Hindu texts, the idea of Shakti as the divine feminine energy became more pronounced as the wives of the gods began to personify the powers of their husbands.^[9] Despite arriving at this state, it was only later, after a lot of philosophical speculation and understanding the connection underlying the universe that the concept of Shakti, as being the feminine unity pervading all existence was developed.^[10]

The Upanishads did not featured goddesses notably. However the ideas devised during this period became significant in later conceptions of Shakti.^[10] The theory of Shakti advocated in Shakta Upanishads was predicated on the concept of Brahman, a gender-neutral Absolute. Brahman's all-encompassing nature gave rise to the idea of an individual self Atman.^[10]

The worship of Shakti receded during the Vedic period, but became prominent from the classical period of Hinduism, during which she was personified as Devi, a goddess.^[4] Scriptural texts such as Devi Bhagavata Purana, Kalika Purana, Markandeya Purana, and Mahabhagavata Purana held Shakti as the supreme over all deities and promoted her worship.^[4]

In Hinduism, Shakti (Śakti), the Sanskrit word for "energy" or "power", is the "energizing material power" of the Hindu Gods.^[11] As the energy corresponding with Vishnu, she is Lakshmi. As the Goddess, or Devi, Shakti is "Universal Power".^[12] Shakti is generally personified as the wife of a specific Hindu god, particularly Shiva, for whom she took forms as Durga, Kali, and Parvati.^[13][14] In Hindu custom, the wife of a man is considered his Shakti. In the Ramayana, Sita, the wife of Rama was his Shakti; in the Mahabharata, Draupadi was the Shakti of the Pandavas.^[12]

The Markandeya Purana conceived Shakti as "pure consciousness" overseeing creation, preservation, and destruction; and identified Shakti with nature or prakriti.^[4] As prakriti (nature), Shakti is believed to had brought the primal male (purusha) into existence.^[12] The feminine (shakti) is believed to come into being as part of the "lila" (divine play) with the masculine (shiva).^[15] Shakti and Shiva are considered complementary principles to each other.^[15] Shakti being "activated Time", while shiva being "nonactivated Eternity".^[12]

In the Hindu tantric view, Shakti correlates with the Kundalini energy.^[16] Shakti is considered the "creative dynamic energy" that permeates and "animates" all existence.^[17][18] In the Brihannila Tantra, the God Shiva says: "O Goddess I am the body (deha) and you are the conscious spirit within the body (dehin)".^[19] "Shiva without Shakti is but a corpse, it is said."^[20] In the Jungian analytical psychology, the concept of Anima/animus that animates all humans, is considered the "spiritual equivalent" of Shakti.^[12]

The Devi Bhagavata Purana considers the nature of Shakti as being made up of three existential qualities: Sattva (calm and balanced), Rajas (passionate and active), and Tamas (lethargic and inactive).^[4]

Animated and inanimated objects like rivers, stones, trees, mountains are worshipped as embodiments of shakti.^[20] Women are believed to be inherently divine; coalescence of the menstrual cycle with the moon's lunar cycle is held important.^[20] The menstrual blood (Kula) is revered and is offered in rituals to propitiate the deities. In some cases, Animal sacrifices have replaced menstrual blood offerings, however female animals are not sacrificed.^[20]

The Shakta pithas, located across the Indian subcontinent, are believed to be the sacred seats of Shakti. At the altars in these shrines, Shakti is often worshipped in the form of a stone, which is painted red, considered the colour of Shakti, and is decorated with anthropomorphic features like eyes.^[21]

Shaktism regards Shakti as the Supreme Brahman.^[22] According to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar (Professor of Indian history), in Shakta theology: "Brahman is static Shakti and Shakti is dynamic Brahman."^[23] The Shakta Upanishads and the Shakta Tantras equated Brahman with Shakti, and held them as inseparable.^[4]

In the details of its philosophy and practice, Shaktism resembles Shaivism. However Shaktas focus most or all worship on Shakti as the dynamic feminine aspect of the Supreme Divine.^[24] According to this tradition, all Hindu goddesses are manifestations of the same goddess, Mahadevi, also referred to as Adi Parashakti, Adi Shakti, and Abhaya Shakti. Vaishnavas consider her to be Lakshmi; whereas Shaivas consider her to be Parvati, Durga, Lalita and Kali; while Shaktas believe her to be Durga, Tripura Sundari, Bhuvaneshvari, and Kali.^[25]

From Devi-Mahatmya:

By you this universe is borne,
By you this world is created,
Oh Devi, by you it is protected.^[26]

From Shaktisangama Tantra:

Woman is the creator of the universe,
the universe is her form;
woman is the foundation of the world,
she is the true form of the body.

In woman is the form of all things,
of all that lives and moves in the world.
There is no jewel rarer than woman,
no condition superior to that of a woman.^[27]

In the Smarta Advaita tradition, Shakti is one of the five equal personal forms of God, as in the panchadeva system, advocated by Adi Shankara.^[28] The Smarta tradition, also called Smartism, developed and expanded with the Purana genre of literature. It reflects a synthesis of four philosophical strands: Mimamsa, Advaita, Yoga, and theism. The Smarta tradition rejects theistic sectarianism, and is notable for the domestic worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal—Ganesha, Shiva, Adi Parashakti, Vishnu and Surya. The Smarta tradition contrasted with the older Shrauta tradition, which was based on elaborate rituals and rites. There has been a considerable overlap in the ideas and practices of the Smarta tradition with other denominations within Hinduism, namely Shaivism, Brahmanism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism.^[29][30][31]

• Ammavaru – Hindu goddess
• Iccha-shakti – Sanskrit term for willpower
• Mariamman – Hindu goddess of weather
• Mohini – Hindu goddess of enchantment, the only female avatar of Vishnu
• Tridevi – Trinity of chief goddesses in Hinduism

• Avalon, Arthur; Avalon, Ellen (1913). Hymns to the Goddess. London: Luzac & Co. – via Internet Archive.
• Avalon, Arthur (1953) [1922]. Hymn to Kali: Karpuradi Stotra. Madras: Ganesh & Co. – via Internet Archive.
• Harish, Ranjana; Harishankar, V. Bharathi (2003). Shakti: Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Women's Empowerment in India. New Delhi, IN: Rawat. ISBN 81-7033-793-3.
• McDaniel, June (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls: Popular Goddess Worship in West Bengal. Oxford University Press.
• Woodroffe, John (1918). Shakti and Shâkta: Essays and Addresses on the Shâkta Tantrashâstra. London: Luzac & Co. – via Internet Archive.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Shakti.

• "Shakti". VedaBase. Listing of usage in Puranic literature. Archived from the original on 15 April 2009.