The Mongol Invasion (trilogy)

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The Mongol Invasion is a trilogy of historical novels by Soviet writer Vasily Yan that explores the Mongol conquests, including the Mongol conquest of Central Asia and their Western campaign, as well as the resistance of the peoples living in Central Asia and Eastern Europe during the early 13th century.^[1] This trilogy is considered the author's most renowned work and comprises the novels "Genghis Khan" (1939), "Batu" (1942), and "To the "Last Sea" (1955).^[2]

Vasily Yan became interested in the theme of Genghis Khan's conquests in the early 20th century while serving in the Transcaspian region.^[3] Vasiliy Yan was inspired to write after having a dream in which Genghis Khan attempted to defeat him. In 1934, after receiving a recommendation from Maxim Gorky, the publishing house Young Guard commissioned Yan to write a story about Genghis Khan.^[4] However, due to various circumstances, the story was not published until 1939.

By February of 1940, the manuscript for the sequel "Batu" had already been submitted to Goslitizdat. Just two months later, the writer also offered a children's adaptation titled "Invasion of Batu" to Detgiz. As the Great Patriotic War unfolded in 1941, it became evident that his books were incredibly relevant to the current circumstances.^[5] On July 21st of that year, Vasily Yan was officially admitted to the Union of Soviet Writers. Thanks to the recommendation of Alexander Fadeev, the writer was honored as the recipient of the prestigious Stalin Prize of the first degree for his work in 1941.

During the Great Patriotic War, the writer kept working on his project even while being evacuated in Uzbekistan. When he got back to Moscow, his third book, "The Golden Horde and Alexander the Restless", was officially announced in the April 22, 1945 edition of "Literaturnaya Gazeta". Excerpts from the highly anticipated book had already been published in various prominent publications. The author submitted the manuscript to Goslitizdat at the end of 1948, but faced opposition from archaeologist Artemiy Artsikhovsky and writer Alexei Yugov. This led to significant revisions to the text. The novel was eventually split into two parts in 1950, and published posthumously in 1955 after the writer passed away.

The trilogy garnered high praise from a wide range of experts such as historians specializing in Russian, medieval, and Oriental studies, as well as critics and literary scholars. As a result of the overwhelmingly positive feedback, the books gained immense popularity and were in constant demand, leading to numerous reprints.

The story starts close to Gurganj in Khwarazm, where a beggar dervish named Hadji Rakhim Baghdadi is on his way. He comes across a ravaged caravan in the desert and is informed by the surviving merchant Mahmud-Yalvach that the infamous thief Kara-Konchar ("black sword") is responsible for it. A dust storm forces them to seek shelter with nomads. They are joined by bey Jalal al-Din, son of the powerful ruler Muhammad II of Khwarazm, lost while hunting. The group shares a meal, including the bey's prey, and extends hospitality to Kara-Konchar. Khan Jalal grants Kara-Konchar safe passage to Gurganj.

In Gurganj, Hadji Rakhim discovers his father and brother are dead in prison and finds his home abandoned. He escapes to Baghdad. There, Muhammad orders the execution of ten prisoners but spares a boy named Tugan, whom Rakhim recognizes as his brother. When a teacher-blacksmith refuses to help, Rakhim becomes Tugan's protector. He orders a dagger forged from Tugan's shackles, while Mahmud-Yalvach provides him with financial assistance.

Persuaded by his mother, Shah Muhammad names his son heir and exiles Jalal ad-Din to Ghazna near India. Meanwhile, he seeks a fortune-teller's insight into his wife Gül-Jamal, but fails. Gül-Jamal ends up trapped in a locked room with a leopard, but is saved by Kara-Konchar. Uprisings in the East trouble the palace, leading Muhammad to march to Samarkand after persuasion from his mother.

Timur-Melik, the leader of the Shah's guards, shares a meal with Kara-Konchar and the disgraced bey Jalal al-Din, during which a captured Türkic hunter provides details about Genghis Khan, as he prefers not to serve him. Driven by his mother, Muhammad marches east, rejects Mongol peace offers, and achieves an initial victory. However, Genghis Khan's son breaks through, resulting in Muhammad's devastating defeat.

Following the suppression of a Samarkand revolt, the Khwarazm Shah encounters Genghis Khan's traders, including Mahmud-Yalvach, a former Khan spy. Mahmud convinces the Shah of Genghis Khan's might, leading to a secret meeting where the Shah offers Mahmud a pearl, hoping to sway him. However, Mahmud relays this information to Genghis Khan, causing a failed Mongol infiltration and triggering the full-scale invasion of Khwarazm.

Facing Mongol invasion, Shah Muhammad orders taxes to be collected three years in advance and drafts men for military service. Peasant Kurban-Qyzyk, a destitute peasant, faces hardship and seeks a tax reprieve in Bukhara, only to lose his horse and become vulnerable. Bukhara falls swiftly to the Mongol onslaught, and Kurban flees with other citizens. The Kagan celebrates his victory as Shah Muhammad, his son, and their retinue, including Kurban, flee westward to Iran. Samarkand falls.

Abandoned by all, even Kurban, the Shah ends up on a leper island, losing his mind and dying. Timur-Melik buries him, breaks his sword, and becomes a dervish. Meanwhile, Kurban, after killing a Mongol and taking his horse, rushes home to find his mother and wife barely alive, their children dead. Genghis Khan, in a cruel twist, orders the Shah's mother to be seated at his yurt's entrance, where bones are thrown to her during feasts.

Jalal ad-Din's resistance grows, but internal strife weakens his hold on Gurganj. Defeated, he escapes, leaving the capital vulnerable. Meanwhile, Hadji Rakhim Baghdadi and Tugan serve Mahmud-Yalvach, an advisor to Genghis Khan. Burdened by office routine, Mahmud tasks Rakhim with delivering a message to Jochi, the Khagan's son. In the desert, Rakhim and Tugan fall captive to Kara Konchar's band. To explain Kara-Konchar's banditry, the dervish spins a tale of Gul-Jamal and Kara-Burgut. Discovering Gul-Jamal is still alive, Kara-Konchar orchestrates a rebellion to secure her freedom. The Mongols kill another Khwarazmian Sultan, flood city, causing Kara-Konchar, Gül-Jamal, and Tugan to vanish. After Juchi-khan's death, Hadji Rakhim becomes a tutor to his son, Batu.

Genghis Khan assigns Subutai bagatur and Jebe noyon the task of locating Shah Muhammad across Iran, Georgia, Sudak, and Kharkiv, but they fail to find him. Meanwhile, Polovtsian Khan Köten seeks aid from the Russians, prompting the Russian princes, including Mstislav Udatny and Mstislav Romanovich, to gather near Kiev. However, the Russian forces fall into a trap set by the Mongols and suffer defeat at the hands of the Kipchaks and Mstislav Udatny's troops. The soldiers from Kiev surrender and face a massacre. Reinforcements from Russia meet the same fate. After pillaging the area, Genghis Khan orders a withdrawal, and the invasion concludes with the execution of all captured princes, who are crushed under planks.

Genghis Khan battles in India, where Jalal al-Din seeks refuge. The Mongol ruler aims to conquer the land and eliminate the former Shah of Khorezm's son. A khan's wife urges advisor Yelü Chucai to convince Genghis Khan to return home. His health failing, the conqueror seeks a potion of immortality. Yelui suggests the wise Taoist Qiu Chuji, who is brought before the lord. However, the Chinese sage reveals that immortality is a myth. Shortly after, Genghis Khan passes, naming Ögedei his heir. Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan and future Khan Batu, remains the ruler of the former Khorezm.

In the epilogue, it is revealed that Tugan has survived and become a warrior among the Mongols. He embarks on a journey to Khorezm, seeking his relatives. There, he discovers that his brother, Hadji Rahim, is imprisoned and faces execution by the imams. Prior to his execution, Hadji Rahim is compelled to write the history of Genghis Khan's conquests. Tugan administers a potion to his brother, causing him to lose consciousness and appear lifeless. The guards, believing him dead, discard his body at a dumping ground for public ridicule. Under the cloak of night, Tugan retrieves his brother and carries him away to an undisclosed location.

Hadji Rakhim Baghdadi presents a story of Batu Khan's early days, beginning with his arrival disguised as an envoy, sheltered by Baghdadi himself. The orphan Yülduz and Nazar-Karizek also encounter the fugitive, while an Arab horseman brings greetings from Khan Jalal al-Din. Khan Batu, hiding from assassins, shows his qualities as a warrior. He aims to conquer the entire universe to its furthest edge - the "last sea", fulfilling his great-grandfather's decree. Genghisid princes assemble for a western campaign, during which Nazar-Karizek sells Yülduz. Musuk, Nazar-Karizek's son, joins Batu Khan's mentor, Subutai bagatur. Yülduz, selected as one of Batu Khan's wives, travels with other women. Khan Bayander designates Yülduz as a "hard-working, black wife" amongst the seven chosen.

Six months after leaving Sighnaq, in late fall, the Mongol army arrives at the Volga in late autumn. Musuk is wounded during a meeting with Gleb Vladimirovich, the deposed Grand Duke of Principality of Ryazan, and Babila, a fisherman, helps build a ford across the river. Batu Khan camps at Urakova Mountain near Yeruslan in the autumn of 1237. Gleb Vladimirovich joins Batu's service as a nuker, offering guidance through Russian lands during a stormy night. Batu, entertained by Gazuk's tale of Attila, hears his younger wife declare him the Mongols' guiding star. Ryazan holds a veche where Yuri of Ryazan receives Mongolian envoys. One, a Bulgar merchant and suspected spy, demands a tithe on all goods. On Evpaty Kolovrat's advice, Yuri seeks aid from Grand Prince Yuri II of Vladimir. Anticipating disaster, Yuri also calls for assistance from other principalities. The content of the Tatar ambassadors' conversation with Georgy remains a mystery.

Batu Khan winters by the Voronezh River, rejecting Russian gifts as inferior to Chinese crafts. He accepts only a dozen horses, keeping one black steed and distributing the rest. Prince Feodor refuses to bow to Batu, treating him as an equal. As punishment, the Ryazan delegation receives the meagerest food portions. They retort with a Polovtsian proverb: "Go to the feast, having eaten your fill at home." Feodor and his companions are subsequently killed on Batu Khan's orders.

Facing winter's onset, the Mongol leader considers campaigns towards Ryazan or Kyiv. Heeding his advisors Subutai and Hadji Rakhim, he opts to resupply in captured Russian cities. In Ryazan, Princess Eupraxia of Kiev, grieving for her deceased husband, commits suicide. During the Mongol advance, Musuk and Uriankh-Kadan (Subutai's son) are captured by Prince Yuri of Ryazan. After a Russian defeat on the Wild Field, the near-frozen Uriankh-Kadan is revived by Baba Opalenikha, a Russian captive. Refusing a reward from Subutai, she emphasizes the inherent humanity of even an enemy.

Ryazan valiantly resists the Mongol invasion, but without support from other Russian territories, it falls and is destroyed by Mongol horses. Khan Batu swiftly advances, preventing neighboring principalities from recovering, and burns Kolomna to the ground. In a rash attempt to capture the city, Kulkan Khan dies, and Moscow (Mushkaf) and Vladimir suffer the same fate. However, Russian princes remain defiant; they covertly assemble a unified Russian army to defeat the Mongols, led by Evpatiy Kolovrat. But a traitor alerts Khan, who attacks the Russians before they can unite.

Following the fall of Kozelsk, Batu Khan turns south towards the Kipchak steppes. He dispatches the Chinese architect Li Tung-po, the builder of the Vladimir-destroying siege engines, to Urakov Mountain to construct a field palace – the core of his new dominion. Yülduz requests Nazar-Kyarizek accompany Li, a man she cannot pardon. Meanwhile, Arapsha drives the traitor Gleb, his mission accomplished, into the steppe.

Batu's" finale resonates deeply with the hardships of 1942, contrasting two stark chapters. The chapter titled "And Russia is Being Built Again!" is characterized by the constant rhythmic sound of axes on the burnt remains of Perun's Grove. This serves as a leitmotif throughout the chapter. In stark contrast, the chapter dedicated to the victors' celebration, "In the Distant Homeland," features mournful songs instead of triumphant ones. Returning home, Nazar-Kyarizek carries empty saddles, his sons lost in the Rus' campaign, highlighting the war's true cost.

In the first part of the novel, Duda the Righteous, a skilled seal carver and advisor to the Caliph of Baghdad, learns that Abd-ar-Rahman, a descendant of Abd al-Rahman I, has appeared in the city. Recognizing his potential, they decide to send him north to Batu Khan to address the Tatar threat over Iraq. Duda serves as secretary and chronicler. Ambassadors travel by ship from the Iron Gate to Xacitarxan, with Islam Agha, the ship's owner, carrying the captivating Byzantine princess Daphne, who is destined for the Mongol khan after being captured by pirates. Meanwhile, Abd-ar-Rahman stays safe, adhering to Genghis Khan's Yassa. The ambassador consults the wise fortune teller Bibi-Gunduz, who reveals that the young Arab seeks fame over wealth, before continuing to Batu Khan's headquarters with a caravan of Arab merchants.

The story takes place in a grand palace built in the Volga steppe by Chinese architect Li Tun-po. Musuk, a taiji, serves the young and ambitious Khan Batu, who, recently triumphant in Zalessky Rus, brims with youthful strength and newfound confidence. As he contemplates his destiny, he is determined to propagate the teachings of Genghis Khan and reach the "last sea". Upon arriving at the palace, Batu feels unwell, cared for by his beloved wife Yülduz-Khatun. His brother Ordu scours for a doctor, who happens to be Princess Daphnia, brought by the centurion Arapsha alongside Duda.

Rejuvenated, Batu witnesses a scandal among his wives. In a show of authority, he gives three of them to his generals, while Ordu promises Daphne freedom, a herd of mares, and ninety-nine gifts. During an audience with the bishop, Ambassador Abd-ar-Rahman vows his sword and loyalty. Meanwhile, Li Tong-po and chronicler Hadji Rakhim enlighten Batu on the legacy of Iskander the Two-Horned, emphasizing that true greatness stems not only from conquest but also from mercy towards the conquered. Inspired, Batu declares the establishment of a new realm — the Blue Horde.

Hadji Rakhim's "Travel Book" continues, detailing Batu Khan's concern over Novgorod's independent spirit. He orders the selection of intelligent captives to gather intelligence. Arapsha finds Savva and Kozhemyaka, who reveal information about Yaroslav II of Vladimir and Alexander Nevsky. Subutai promises Alexander a high position, while Arapsha becomes ambassador to Novgorod. Prince Alexander sends raftsmen with gifts and ransom for the captives. Ambassador Gavrila organizes a bear show for Yülduz-Khatun, earning a reward from Zerbiet-Khanum. After successfully ransoming the captives, Gavrila departs for Novgorod with Emir Arapsha. Gavrila's journey is marked by concern for his wife Lyubava, who nearly became a nun due to infidelity rumors. Yesun-Nohai abducts her, but Gavrila rescues her just before she's tonsured.

Batu Khan faces Chingizid opposition during preparations for the Western campaign. Yülduz urges him to spare Kyiv, proposing it as a second capital. Meanwhile, Ordu's brother complains about Yesun-Nokhai, Tatar Khan's rebellious son, who seduced and kidnapped his Greek concubine. Batu and Subutai trap Yesun-Nokhai, assigning him to the vanguard. This "riotous" detachment includes diverse figures, like Utboy, a Kurdish butcher whose horse blanket, reportedly made from a slain concubine's skin, is falsely presented as a trophy from Jalal ad-Din. Yesun exposes the lie, forcing Utboy to confess. Mengu Khan leads the initial assault on Kyiv. The narrative then shifts to Khan Kotyan's camp, where Hungarian monk Julian receives Batu's message for his king. Abd-ar-Rahman provides a Baghdad-bound perspective through his reports, adding another layer to the unfolding events.

Vadim, aspiring icon painter, finds himself in Alexander Nevsky's wife's retinue. After painting a princess instead of the Virgin Mary, he faces accusation and flees to the Kyiv-Pechersk Monastery, seeking mentorship and solace. He finds artistic success, but is forced to fight invaders, as Kyiv blocks the Mongols' path. While Europe crumbles – a French king faces martyrdom, a German emperor flees – Batu's Mongol horde, exhausted by war and a devastating pogrom, halts its advance. Batu faces his own grief: his beloved wife Yülduz is dead, mourned by intellectual advisors Hadji Rakhim and Li Tun-po. From the ashes of war, a new powerful state emerges, shaping the destiny of its neighbors for centuries. Concluding his story, Hadji Rakhim wishes future readers to avoid experiencing the worst life has to offer: the devastating impact of a cruel and senseless war.

The debate over whether Vasily Yan's extensive fiction works should be classified as novels or not raged on, with his trilogy The Invasion of the Mongols serving as a focal point. While the author was adamant that all of his extensive works of fiction were novellas and not novels, critics and literary scholars argued otherwise, labeling works such as "Genghis Khan", "Batu", and "To the "Last Sea"" as novels. In the realm of literary analysis, Vasily Yan was identified as a key figure in the Soviet historical novel genre, known for his depiction of pivotal moments in history and prominent historical figures. Lydia Alexandrova noted the unique aspect of Yan's writing, pointing out that his protagonists often portrayed negative historical figures.^[6] Ultimately, the classification and interpretation of Vasily Yan's works continued to spark discussion and debate within literary circles.

The trilogy is seen as a cohesive whole by both the author and critics, characterized by consistent literary techniques and methods of portraying historical events. Vasily Yan found valuable insights into the life of the Tuvans in the 1920s while working on historical novels about the Mongols. The character of Baba Opalenikha in the novel "Batu" was based on a real resident of Uyuk.^[7]

A central theme in "Genghis Khan" is the strained relationship between father and son, specifically the conflict between the great kagan and his eldest son Jochi, who governs in Khwarazm. Jochi is portrayed as a distorted reflection of Genghis Khan, sharing his father's intimidating presence and penetrating gaze. As a result, in Vasily Yan's work, Jochi was brutally killed by mercenaries on his father's orders, with his spine broken as per Mongolian tradition.^[8] Vasily Yan fearlessly exposed the tyrant Genghis Khan with accusatory descriptions, depicting his appearance as unaesthetic and repulsive. He described how Khan clapped his hands on his belly when happy, with a smile resembling a semblance, and laughter akin to a wolfhound's howl. In anger, Khan ordered the feeding of a swift dog with a defeated boy's heart, and upon receiving the heart, he grunted like an old boar. Yan's straightforwardness in presenting these details emphasized the tyrant's cruelty and brutality.^[9]

The composition of the trilogy was based on the chronicle of the Mongol campaign to the West. Consequently, the culmination and finale of the first book is the death of the "Shaker of the Universe". In the second part, his grandson Batu acts, with whom his grandfather had hopes of continuing the great cause. The plot of the trilogy is determined by the history and geography of the conquering campaigns of Genghis Khan and Batu. In the two parts of the trilogy, a harmonious unity of content and form was achieved, based on a deep knowledge of historical reality. For example, when Subutai and Jebe send a messenger to Mongolia after the Battle of the Kalka River, not knowing how to write, they compose a message in the form of a song and make the messenger sing it "nine times nine", because the number nine was a sacred number for the Mongols. Similarly, describing the first appearance of the young Batu-khan, Yan notes that three arrows with red feathers were sticking out of his quiver, given to him according to his rank.

Valentin Oskotsky believed that the most compelling aspect of this novel was the vivid depiction of Batu Khan's campaign "when the sun goes down", where Kiev defiantly stood against the Mongol forces, refusing to surrender like other cities that had fallen to the Tatars.^[10] Vasily Yan aimed to contrast Batu Khan's aggressive tactics with Alexander Yaroslavich's cautious approach, as the latter strategically avoided direct conflict with the Horde despite his victories over the Swedes and Livonian knights. In the artistic world created by Vasily Yan, Genghis Khan and Batu Khan symbolized destruction, while Alexander Nevsky represented creation through his military prowess and governance. Although the author's attempt to juxtapose these contrasting figures may not have been completely successful, the novel effectively showcased their divergent qualities and ideologies.

Valentin Oskotsky, a literary critic, thought that Vasily Yan's trilogy of "main books" had some success but also had some hurdles when it came to getting published because of their controversial themes. It took five years to publish "Genghis Khan," even with support from Maxim Gorky, because it was risky to criticize tyranny in the 1930s. But once World War II started, things changed, and the novel became a groundbreaking work in Soviet literature that challenged the norms of the time.^[11]

The early reviews of "Genghis Khan" from 1939-1940 weren't great. Critics like Georgy Schtorm thought Vasily Yan focused too much on traditional exoticism in the East, while Zoya Kedrina liked the colorful language but felt the plot lacked cohesion. Sergei Khmelnitsky was especially tough, saying Yan oversimplified historical events despite knowing his stuff.^[12]

During the war years, the reissued novel received more positive reviews. Critics such as Leonid Volynsky and Valery Kirpotin praised Vasily Yan's novels for bringing the past to life and showing his passion for modernity and historical truth. Zoya Kedrina also complimented the writer's skill and accuracy in her review of the second novel in the trilogy. The overall message was in line with official Soviet evaluations, with A. Fadeev stating in 1942 that Yan's novels inspired patriotism and national pride in the Soviet people. Other critics agreed, emphasizing the relevancy and significance of Yan's works during that time.^[13] Lev Razgon praised Yanchevetsky as a writer who carried on the compassionate traditions of Russian literature, instilling a sense of dignity and resilience in his readers.^[14] Igor Kondakov observed a peak in interest for Yan's work during the tumultuous years of the 1980s-1990s, when individuals grappling with the aftermath of the empire sought solace and guidance in Yan's novels.^[15]

Sergei Petrov, a Soviet literary scholar and critic, had some thoughts on the novel Genghis Khan. He mentioned how the author switches between a descriptive style and a more analytical one. On the other hand, Lydia Alexandrova liked how Vasily Yan used documentation in the novel, comparing it to Alexander Pushkin's The Captain's Daughter.^[16] Yan's incorporation of historical quotes as chapter epigraphs gives the text a sense of authenticity and unity. The character of chronicler Hadji Rakhim is seen as a trustworthy narrator in the trilogy, adding credibility to the events in the story.

In 2016, Russian writer Dmitry Bykov casually talked about how Vasily Yan winning the Stalin Prize was a big deal, saying his novels about the Mongol horde were like a blueprint for Stalin's empire.^[17] Bykov wasn't a fan of Yan's fancy writing style, saying it was old-fashioned and lacking in new ideas. But despite that, Yan's books were a hit in both the USSR days and modern Russia. Another literary scholar, Wolfgang Kazak, mentioned in his book that Yan's novels, which focused on fighting against a stronger enemy and fighting for liberation, were super relevant before the war, which is why he got the Stalin Prize.^[18]

• Баскаков, Е.Н. (2019). "Средняя Азия в жизни Василия Григорьевича Янчевецкого". Форум молодых учёных. 38 (10): 76–79. ISSN 2500-4050.
• Hung, William (1951). "The Transmission of The Book Known as The Secret History of The Mongols". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 14 (3/4): 433–492. doi:10.2307/2718184. JSTOR 2718184.
• Lane, George (2004). Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-3133-2528-1.
• Козак, В. (1996). Ян. Лексикон русской литературы XX века = Lexikon der russischen Literatur ab 1917 / [пер. с нем.] Москва: РИК «Культура». p. 492. ISBN 5-8334-0019-8.
• Козлов, Д.В. (2013). Историческая проза в контексте советской эпохи (послевоенный советский исторический роман): учеб. пособие. Иркутск: Изд-во ИГУ. p. 98. ISBN 978-5-9624-0980-1.
• Разгон, Лев (1995). Позавчера и сегодня. Москва: Инфра-М. ISBN 5-86225-098-0.
• Razgon, Lev (1995). True stories: The memoirs of Lev Razgon. Translated by John Crowfoot. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Ardis. ISBN 0-87501-108-X.
• Янчевецкий, М. (1972). "Новое о творчестве В. Яна". Вопросы литературы (1): 222–224.
• Янчевецкий, М. (1972). "О новых изданиях и литературном наследии В. Яна". Русская литература (2): 190–191.
• Янчевецкий, М. (1977). Писатель-историк В. Ян. Очерк творчества. Москва: Детская литература. p. 192.

• Dmitry Bykov (2016-07-30). "Василий Ян. «Батый»". Сто лет — сто лекций Дмитрия Быкова. Выпуск № 43. Tvrain.ru. Retrieved 2020-06-08.
• The Islamic World to 1600: The Golden Horde
• "Ян Василий Григорьевич". Проект ХРОНОС. Retrieved 2019-12-22.