United Kingdom–European Union relations

European Union–United Kingdom relations
Diplomatic mission
European Union Delegation, London	United Kingdom Mission, Brussels
Envoy
Ambassador Pedro Serrano	Ambassador Lindsay Croisdale-Appleby

Relations between the European Union (EU) and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK) are governed, since 1 January 2021, by the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA).

Relations trace back to the foundation of the European Communities, the European Union's predecessor, in 1957. The UK was a member state of the bloc after joining it in 1973 (which was confirmed in a referendum on membership in 1975) until it became the first country to voluntarily end its membership on 31 January 2020 after a second referendum on membership was held in 2016 which resulted in 51.9% of voters opting to leave.

The Brexit withdrawal agreement now plays a significant role in relations between the two polities. The United Kingdom shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland, an EU member state, via Northern Ireland, which has remained a de facto member of the European Single Market and maintained the authority of the European Court of Justice under the Northern Ireland Protocol. Relations between the UK and the EU have seen improvement since the proposal of the Windsor Framework.

History

Precedents

The UK failed to take part in the diplomatic discussions that led up to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), likewise later withdrawing from negotiations for the constitution of the European Economic Community (EEC).^[1]

The United Kingdom's failed applications to join the European Communities (EC) in 1963 and 1967 were vetoed by the president of France, Charles de Gaulle, who said that "a number of aspects of Britain's economy, from working practices to agriculture" had "made Britain incompatible with Europe" and that Britain harboured a "deep-seated hostility" to any pan-European project.^[2] Once de Gaulle had relinquished the French presidency in 1969, the UK made a third and successful application for membership.

UK membership in the bloc (1973–2020)

Following the UK accession to the EC in 1973, the former got to renegotiate membership terms, vied for budgetary rebates and requested opt-outs from the single currency and other common policies.^[3] The protectionist Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in particular was often at the center of the UK conflicts with the rest of the EC, underpinning its reputation as an "awkward partner" within the bloc.^[4]

Since 1977, both pro- and anti-European views have had majority support at different times, with some dramatic swings between the two camps.^[5] Conservative and Labour parties alike usually pandered to the prejudices towards the EC espoused by the Britons, who rather than commit to a European idea, generally preferred to hanker for the bygone days of British world hegemony.^[6] In the United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum of 1975, two-thirds of British voters favoured continued EC membership. The highest-ever rejection of membership was in 1980, the first full year of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's term of office, with 65% opposed to and 26% in favour of membership.^[5] As a member of the EU, the United Kingdom never adopted the use of the euro or joined the Schengen Area, which, bringing down border controls in a number of countries, thereby allowed for free movement of citizens.^[7] Likewise, the UK government adhered to a long-standing policy of enthusiasm for EU enlargement, under the premise that the addition of more members would undermine any federalising drive (deepening) of the union.^[8]^[3]

Vis-à-vis Gibraltar, a British Overseas Territory whose defence and foreign policies are handled by His Majesty's Government, the Spain's accession to the European Communities in 1986, negotiated with the UK inside the bloc from a position of strength, made the former country to renounce its power, recognised by the Treaty of Utrecht, to close its land border with Gibraltar at its discretion.^[9] The then Conservative UK government acquiesced to the 1992 Maastricht Treaty (by which the European Union came into existence) as it aligned with its vision of the bloc as essentially a free market.^[10]

The 1998 Good Friday Agreement pertaining the end of the ethnonationalist conflict in Northern Ireland was signed under the context of the shared membership of the UK and Ireland in the EU.^[11]

Following the result of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum, when 52 percent of those who voted supported 'Brexit' (a portmanteau of "British exit"), the UK negotiated its withdrawal from the European Union. After the vote, British Prime Minister David Cameron, who supported staying in the EU, resigned. Theresa May became the prime minister after his formal resignation. Although she also supported remaining in the EU, she committed to negotiating Britain's exit.^[12] The United Kingdom formally left the bloc on 31 January 2020.

Post-Brexit relations (since 2020)

On 30 December 2020, after eight months of negotiations, the EU and the UK signed the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement,^[13] which governs bilateral relations since its provisional entry into force two days later and which was later ratified by both parties. UK government attempts to unilaterally reject the terms of the agreed Northern Ireland Protocol have exacerbated post-Brexit relations.^[14]

Although the United Kingdom has maintained strong relations with some EU member states, the decision to withdraw and subsequent turbulent process of negotiating the Trade and Cooperation Agreement sparked criticism of the United Kingdom across the EU.^[15] However, UK-EU collaborative discussions on the response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, which saw the UK invited to an EU Foreign Affairs Council meeting for the first time since Brexit, and the successful negotiation of the Windsor Framework for Northern Ireland between the UK and EU, has indicated a gradual improvement of relations over time.^[16]^[17]

On June 28, 2023, the EU and UK signed a memorandum of understanding to enhance cooperation on financial services. Chancellor Jeremy Hunt described the signing as a significant moment, highlighting the interconnections of the EU and UK financial markets. The agreement establishes a forum for regular discussions on voluntary regulatory cooperation. However, it does not indicate regulatory alignment or address specific demands from the EU.^[18]

Of the 1,218,000 immigrants who came to the United Kingdom in 2023, only 126,000 were citizens of EU member states.^[19] BBC reported that "In the 12 months to June 2023, net EU migration was -86,000, meaning more EU nationals left the UK than arrived".^[19] EU citizens working in the health and social care sector have been replaced by migrants from non-EU countries such as India and Nigeria.^[20]^[21] After Brexit, the number of EU nationals who were refused entry to the UK increased fivefold.^[22]

On 2 October 2024, the UK and the EU agreed to strengthen their relationship following the disruptions caused by Brexit. During talks in Brussels, Keir Starmer and Ursula von der Leyen emphasized their commitment to enhancing cooperation on issues such as economic growth, energy, security, and migration. They reaffirmed their dedication to the Withdrawal Agreement and international law, despite pressure from hard-line Brexiteers regarding the European Convention on Human Rights. They planned to define areas for strengthened cooperation in the coming months and committed to regular meetings, starting with a summit early next year.^[23]

Post-Brexit polling

Following the UK's withdrawal from the EU, polling companies have continued to poll respondents on re-joining the EU.

National polling

Respondents are regularly polled on their voting intention in a hypothetical referendum on re-joining the EU. This is instead of re-using the leave/ remain question from the 2016 referendum.

Recent polling results have demonstrated a clear lead for "re-join" over "stay[ing] out". A longer example of the following table can be found here.

Dates conducted	Pollster	Client	Sample size	Rejoin	Stay out	Neither	Lead
Dates conducted	Pollster	Client	Sample size				Lead
26-27 Jan 2023	Omnisis	N/A	1,247	49%	29%	22%	20%
19-20 Jan 2023	Omnisis	N/A	1,247	47%	31%	22%	16%
11-12 Jan 2023	Omnisis	N/A	1,247	44%	31%	25%	13%
5-6 Jan 2023	Omnisis	N/A	1,285	49%	30%	21%	19%

In the European Union

In 2021, Euronews commissioned British pollsters Redfield & Wilton Strategies to conduct a poll in France, Germany, Spain, and Italy on how respondents would feel about the UK re-joining the EU. Support out-weighed opposition across all four countries, with it being lowest in France (36%) and highest in Spain (46%).^[24]

Trade

In 2017, exports to the European Union amounted to £274 billion out of £616 billion in total exports for the UK. The proportion of UK export to the European Union has been noted to be in decline, since exports to non-EU countries have increased at a faster rate.^[25]

On the European side, according to Eurostat, exports from the EU 27 to the UK have increased from 316 euro billions in 2015 to 319 euro billions in 2019. In the same time, according to Eurostat, imports from the UK to the EU-27 have increased from 184 euro billions in 2015 to 194 euro billions in 2019.^[26]

United Kingdom's foreign relations with EU member states (EU27)

Country	British embassy	Reciprocal embassy	Notes
Austria	Vienna	London	British Mission to OSCE and UN Office in Vienna Main article: Austria–United Kingdom relations
Belgium	Brussels	London	British Mission to EU and NATO in Brussels Main article: Belgium–United Kingdom relations
Bulgaria	Sofia	London	Main article: Bulgaria–United Kingdom relations
Croatia	Zagreb Consulate General: Split	London	Main article: Croatia–United Kingdom relations
Cyprus	High Commission: Nicosia	High Commission: London	Main article: Cyprus–United Kingdom relations
Czech Republic	Prague	London Consulate General: Manchester	Main article: Czech Republic–United Kingdom relations
Denmark	Copenhagen	London	Main article: Denmark–United Kingdom relations
Estonia	Tallinn	London	Main article: Estonia–United Kingdom relations
Finland	Helsinki	London	Main article: Finland–United Kingdom relations
France	Paris Consulates General: Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille	London Consulate General: Edinburgh	British Mission to OECD and UNESCO in Paris and in Council of Europe in Strasbourg Main article: France–United Kingdom relations
Germany	Berlin Consulates General: Düsseldorf, Munich	London Consulate General: Edinburgh	Main article: Germany–United Kingdom relations
Greece	Athens Consulates General: Heraklion, Thessaloniki	London	Main article: Greece–United Kingdom relations
Hungary	Budapest	London Consulate General: Manchester	Main article: Hungary–United Kingdom relations
Ireland	Dublin	London Consulates General: Cardiff, Edinburgh, Manchester	499 km of common border Main article: Ireland–United Kingdom relations
Italy	Rome Consulates General: Milan, Naples	London Consulate General: Edinburgh	Main article: Italy–United Kingdom relations
Latvia	Riga	London.
Lithuania	Vilnius	London	Main article: Lithuania–United Kingdom relations
Luxembourg	Luxembourg	London
Malta	High Commission: Valletta	High Commission: London	Main article: Malta–United Kingdom relations
Netherlands	The Hague Consulate General: Amsterdam	London	British Mission to OPCW in The Hague Main article: Netherlands–United Kingdom relations
Poland	Warsaw	London Consulates General: Belfast, Edinburgh, Manchester	Main article: Poland–United Kingdom relations
Portugal	Lisbon Consulate General: Portimão	London Consulate General: Manchester	Main article: Portugal–United Kingdom relations
Romania	Bucharest	London Consulate General: Edinburgh, Manchester	Main article: Romania–United Kingdom relations
Slovakia	Bratislava	London	Main article: Slovakia–United Kingdom relations
Slovenia	Ljubljana	London	Main article: Slovenia–United Kingdom relations
Spain	Madrid Consulates General: Barcelona, Alicante, Ibiza, Las Palmas, Málaga, Palma, Santa Cruz	London Consulates General: Edinburgh, Manchester	Main article: Spain–United Kingdom relations
Sweden	Stockholm	London	Main article: Sweden–United Kingdom relations

References

^ Carolan, Bruce (2008). "The Birth of the European Union: US and UK Roles in the Creation of a Unified European Community". The Journal of Comparative and International Law. 16 (1): 62.
^ "Bulgaria Blocks North Macedonia's EU Accession Negotiations - Novinite.com - Sofia News Agency". novinite.com.
^ ^a ^b Duff, Andrew (2020). "Setting the bounds of the European Union" (PDF). European Policy Centre.
^ Seidel, Katja (2020). "Britain, the common agricultural policy and the challenges of membership in the European Community: a political balancing act". Contemporary British History. 34 (2): 1. doi:10.1080/13619462.2019.1650739. S2CID 202278086.
^ ^a ^b Mortimore, Roger. "Polling history: 40 years of British views on 'in or out' of Europe". The Conversation. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
^ George, Stephen (2000). "Britain: Anatomy of a Eurosceptic state". Journal of European Integration. 22 (1): 28. doi:10.1080/07036330008429077. S2CID 143485501.
^ Nugent, Ciara (11 April 2019). "It's Complicated: From the Roman Empire to Brexit, Britain Has Always Struggled to Define Its Relationship With Europe". Time. Retrieved 2020-03-04.
^ Whitman, Richard G. (2007). "The United Kingdom and Turkish accession: the enlargement instinct prevails". In Tocci, Nathalie (ed.). Conditionality, Impact and Prejudice in EU-Turkey Relations (PDF). p. 120.
^ Molina, Ignacio (7 May 2018). "Gibraltar, a possible solution: diffused sovereignty and shared functions". Elcano Institute.
^ George 2000, p. 29.
^ Tonra, Ben (2021). "Emotion norms: Ireland, Brexit, backstops and protocols". Global Affairs. 7 (2): 157–171. doi:10.1080/23340460.2021.1931399. S2CID 239053429.
^ "United Kingdom - The "Brexit" referendum". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-03-04.
^ Barr, Noah A. (2022). "The EU-UK Investment Regime After Brexit: In Search of an Equilibrium?". Global Trade and Customs Journal. 17 (4): 146. doi:10.54648/GTCJ2022020. S2CID 248611272.
^ Tidey, Alice (10 May 2022). "Sinn Fein's historic win in Northern Ireland may not change anything for the Brexit negotiations". euronews.com.
^ Henley, Jon (2020-09-10). "'Depressing, frustrating and shocking': European press on UK Brexit move". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
^ Castle, Stephen (4 March 2022). "How a War Helped Ease a Rift Between Britain and the E.U." The New York Times. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
^ Gallardo, Cristina (4 March 2022). "Putin blows up Brexit". Politico. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
^ David, Dharshini; Edser, Nick (2023-06-28). "UK to work more closely with EU on financial services". BBC. Retrieved 2023-07-02.
^ ^a ^b "Migration: How many people come to the UK and how are the salary rules changing?". BBC News. 23 May 2024.
^ "Net migration drops to 685,000 after hitting record levels, as even more arrived in UK last year than previously thought". LBC. 23 May 2024.
^ "'Europeans are almost not coming to the UK any more'". Al Jazeera. 9 June 2023.
^ "Fivefold rise in number of EU citizens refused entry to UK since Brexit". The Guardian. 25 November 2023.
^ COOK, LORNE (2 October 2024). "The UK and EU vow to mend their Brexit battered ties. They will set a new agenda and hold summits". Retrieved 3 October 2024.
^ Tidey, Alice (23 June 2021). "Brexit 5 years on: 'We would have you back,' says Europe, in new poll". Euronews. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
^ "Everything you might want to know about the UK's trade with the EU". 28 August 2018. Retrieved 7 December 2018.
^ Eurostat, EU trade since 1988 by CN8 [DS-016890]