Women in the Israel–Hamas war

Women in the Israel–Hamas war refers to the experience of Israeli and Palestinian women as victims of violence, combatants, leadership partners, and as participants in informational campaigns during the Israel–Hamas war. The conflict has been marked by violence towards women, including reports of rape and sexual violence by Hamas militants. Following the Hamas-led attack on Israel on October 7, 2023, there were testimonies and videos indicating that Hamas employed methods of severe torture, including violence and sexual violence against Israeli women and children.^[1] Close to 100 Israeli women were taken hostage and held in Gaza, leading to efforts by Israeli women and organizations to raise awareness and promote their release. The UN Secretary-General and UN Women condemned the gender-based violence against Israeli women during the attacks.

In the Gaza Strip, thousands of women have been killed in Israeli strikes. Two-thirds of the then 11,000 Palestinian casualties reported by the Gaza Health Ministry in early November were women and children, highlighting the disproportionate suffering endured by these groups. UN agencies reported severe disruptions in maternal, newborn, and child health services due to bombardments and infrastructure damage. Additionally, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women described the situation as an assault on Palestinian women's dignity and rights. Over 50,000 pregnant women in Gaza face a lack of access to clean water and food, along with limited access to medical supplies and clinics, resulting in increases of infant mortality and the spread of disease.

On 19 February 2024, a group of United Nations special rapporteurs released a report stating "rights experts call for probe into violations against Palestinian women and girls."^[2] According to the report, there is evidence that during the Israel–Hamas war, Palestinian women and girls were subjected to wartime sexual violence. Palestinian women and girls were reportedly randomly executed in Gaza, often together with their children. Allegations surfaced suggesting that Palestinian women and girls were deliberately targeted and extrajudicially executed by the invading Israel Defense Forces, even when they were holding white pieces of cloth. According to these allegations, Palestinian women and girls were also subjected to inhuman and degrading treatment by the Israel Defense Forces, such as they were denied menstruation pads, food and medicine, and were severely beaten, raped, assaulted, threatened with rape and sexual violence, and subjected to multiple forms of other sexual assaults. Palestinian women and girls were also stripped naked and searched by male Israeli army officers.^{[2][3][4][5][6]} OHCHR stated that Israeli troops had photographed female detainees in “degrading circumstances” and that the photos had been uploaded online.^[5][6]

A group of United Nations experts expressed alarm regarding the increasing volume of allegations of sexual violence reportedly perpetrated by armed groups against women and girls in Israel on October 7, 2023, and reports of sexual assault and threats of sexual violence against women in the occupied Palestinian territories since October 7.^[7] The experts called for an independent process of investigation and accountability.^[7]

Reem Alsalem, the UN Special Rapporteur on violence against women and girls, said that although both genders are affected by these atrocities, women are particularly vulnerable to the consequences.^[8]

During the October 7, 2023 attacks by Hamas on Israeli communities, reports emerged of Hamas militants raping, assaulting, and mutilating Israeli women and girls.^{[9][10][11][12]} Following the attack forensic evidence collection by Israeli authorities confirmed sexual violence.^{[13][14][15][16]} Hamas was accused of committing war crimes and crimes against humanity through the usage of gender-based violence as a weapon of war.^[10][17] Hamas has issued a blanket denial.^[18] Testimonies emerged and videos reached the army containing testimonies that, in addition to the murders, Hamas employed methods of severe torture that included violence against women and sexual violence, including rape.^{[19][20][21][22][23]} CNN reported that the claims are made by witnesses and that "investigators do not have firsthand testimony, and it is not clear whether any rape victims survived."^[23]

Prof. Ruth Halperin-Kaddari argues that the targeted attack against women and children, which included torture and rape, was a central goal aimed at spreading fear and terror, and is part of the use of violence against women as a weapon in war.^[2][22] Liat Atzili, who was kidnapped from the Nir Oz kibbutz, in a long interview, testified that in captivity she spoke at length with her guards and suffered no physical violence.^[24]

The reports of rape and sexual violence are based on testimonies from survivors of the massacre at the music festival near Re'im, and from other residents of Gaza envelope communities. These incidents were also reported on by rescuers. Forensic evidence is consistent with torture and rape, and videos were filmed by Hamas militants themselves, some of them uploaded to social networks and Telegram by alleged Hamas activists according to Ynet and The Algemeiner.^[22][25][26]

92 Israeli and foreign women and girls were taken hostage and held in Gaza during the October 7 attack. The majority of Israeli women and all Israeli girls held hostage were released during the ceasefire agreement between Israel and Hamas at the end of November 2023. As of May 2024, it is known that 9 female hostages died in captivity, while 12 female hostages are believed to be held hostage alive by Israeli intelligence officials.^[27] 7 Israeli female soldiers were taken hostage from the attack on the Nahal Oz military base, with one soldier rescued on October 30 2023, one soldier dying in captivity, and five soldiers still held as hostages as of May 2024. Noa Argamani, a female hostage taken from the Nova music festival was rescued by the IDF on June 8, 2024 in Nuseirat.

There were attempts, led by Israeli women, to raise awareness for the hostage crisis, and to promote the hostages release.^[28][29]

As of mid-November 2023, two-thirds of the 11,000 Palestinian casualties reported killed by the Gaza Health Ministry since the onset of the war, were women and children.^[30] According to a joint statement by UNICEF, the WHO, UNFPA, and the UNRWA, women in Gaza, along with children and newborns, have borne a disproportionate amount of suffering during the war, saying that "the bombardments, damaged or non-functioning health facilities, massive levels of displacement, collapsing water and electricity supplies as well as restricted access to food and medicines, are severely disrupting maternal, newborn, and child health services".^[31][32] The United Nations Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women said that "Since 7 October, the assault on Palestinian women’s dignity and rights has taken on new and terrifying dimensions, as thousands have become victims of war crimes, crimes against humanity and an unfolding genocide".^[33]

On 25 January 2024, a doctor based in Gaza reported an increase in the number of patients suffering from postpartum depression and postpartum haemorrhages.^[34] In March 2024, UN Women called Israel's war on Gaza "a war on women", stating, "While this war spares no one, UN Women data shows that it kills and injures women in unprecedented ways."^[35] The Gaza Health Ministry reported that 60,000 pregnant women were suffering from dehydration, malnutrition, and a lack of medical care.^[36] The UN stated 95 percent of pregnant and breastfeeding women faced severe food poverty.^[37] On 15 March 2024, Amal Hamad, the Palestinian Minister of Women's Affairs, told the UN that 9,000 women had been killed by Israel since 7 October and called "all the women of the world to stand by Palestinian women".^[38]

Palestinian women in Gaza have also alleged threats of rape and sexual violence by invading Israeli soldiers.^[39] Speaking to Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor, one Palestinian woman, who was pregnant, described being forced to undress by an Israeli soldier, who threatened to rape her.^[39]

On 19 February 2024, a group of United Nations special rapporteurs released a report stating "rights experts call for probe into violations against Palestinian women and girls. According to the report, there is evidence that during the Israel–Hamas war, Palestinian women and girls were subjected to wartime sexual violence. Palestinian women and girls were reportedly randomly executed in Gaza, often together with their children. Allegations surfaced suggesting that Palestinian women and girls were deliberately targeted and extrajudicially executed by the invading Israel Defense Forces, even when they were holding white pieces of cloth. According to these allegations, Palestinian women and girls were also subjected to inhuman and degrading treatment by the Israel Defense Forces, such as they were denied menstruation pads, food and medicine, and were severely beaten, raped, assaulted, threatened with rape and sexual violence, and subjected to multiple forms of other sexual assaults. Palestinian women and girls were also stripped naked and searched by male Israeli army officers.^{[40][41][42][43][44]} OHCHR stated that Israeli troops had photographed female detainees in “degrading circumstances” and that the photos had been uploaded online.^[5][6]

The UN report states, "Palestinian women and girls in detention have also been subjected to multiple forms of sexual assault, such as being stripped naked and searched by male Israeli army officers. At least two female Palestinian detainees were reportedly raped".^[45][46] One of the special rapporteurs; Reem Alsalem, cautioned that the reservation in reporting sexual violence was common due to reprisal concerns. Alsalem stated that since the 7 October attacks, women and girls in Israeli detention had faced an increasingly permissive attitude by Israeli officials towards sexual assault.^[47]

The special rapporteurs have also raised concerns over a number of Palestinian women and children going missing, with reports of children being separated from their parents. In one instance a female infant was reportedly forcibly relocated from their parents into Israel.^[48] In response to the report, a spokesman for the U.S. Department of State said, "Civilians and detainees must be treated humanely, and in accordance with international humanitarian law."^[49] Physicians for Human Rights–Israel also described the sexual humiliation of detainees, including sexual insults and urination on prisoners.^[50] The Palestinian Prisoner's Society stated men had been subjected to severe sexual assault, including attempted rape and violating strip searches.^[51]

On December 14, 2023, a group of United Nations experts stated that women and girls in the West Bank and occupied East Jerusalem are at "constant risk of settler violence".^[7] The experts noted that Palestinian women in the occupied West Bank have "faced heightened discrimination, harassment, sexual assault, and attacks by Israeli authorities and settlers" since October 7.^[7]

Multiple Palestinian prisoners report having been subjected to sexual abuse and threats of rape following the outbreak of the war.^{[52][53][54][55]} The BBC reported on one such female prisoner, who said: "They threatened to rape me... It was clear the goal was to intimidate me."^[53] While Israel denied the allegations and threatened to prosecute her lawyer for incitement, the released prisoner reported rape threats against both herself and other incarcerated women.^[53] Another Palestinian woman also alleged threats of sexual assault by Israeli guards.^[54] Middle East Eye likewise reported on allegations by detainees that "Israeli guards have threatened sexual assault against female inmates and assaulted them inside their cells."^[55]

The response to these events varied internationally, US president Joe Biden condemned the violence against women in a speech on 10 October 2023.^[56] Criticism by Israeli human rights and women's rights group was directed at the United Nations and UN Women for failing to address the sexual and gender based violence in the weeks that followed.^[57][58][59] Hamas denied the use of sexual violence.^[60] The UN secretary general on 28 November 2023 and UN women on 2 December 2023 condemned the gender based violence against Israeli women.^[61][62][63]

The United Nations estimates that there are about 50,000 pregnant women in Gaza, with more than 160 women giving birth each day.^[64] In the first year of the war, an estimated 50,000 babies were born in the Gaza Strip, according to Save the Children.^[65] Of the 1.1 million Gazans who were forced to flee northern Gaza following an Israeli evacuation order, 19,000 were estimated to be pregnant women, with some suffering miscarriages due to stress and shock.^[66] Many women in shelters endure inadequate access to food and clean water, and are afraid of giving birth without the assistance of a doctor or midwife.^[67] With over two-thirds of the territory's hospitals and primary care clinics no longer functioning, and Gaza's treated water production at 5% of normal levels, pregnant women in Gaza face lack of access to medical care, nutrition, and giving birth with no pain killers.^[68][69] Human Rights Watch, citing the lack of prenatal care and access to functioning medical facilities, warned the conflict would lead to increases in both maternal and infant mortalities.^[70] Miscarriages in Khan Younis, in the southern portion of the strip were civilians were ordered to evacuate to, were reported to have increased by 20 percent.^[71]

An analysis by the UNRWA found that the lack of food security put lactating and pregnant women at increased risk of lower immune function which would lead to higher rates of nutrition-related illnesses such as anaemia, preeclampsia, and haemorrhage along with other maternal malnutrition illnesses, which in turn would lead to higher rates of maternal and infant mortality.^[72] The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) stated these conditions affected 45,000 pregnant women and 68,000 breastfeeding women.^[73] In May 2024, the UNFPA stated 18,500 pregnant women had been forced to flee Rafah due to Israel's attacks on the city.^[74] Doctors in Gaza warned in June 2024 of an "alarming increase in miscarriages," with as many as ten women a day experiencing a miscarriage each day.^[75] In June 2024, the UNFPA executive director stated, "Women are delivering babies by caesarean section without anesthesia because there’s no energy, there’s no generator, the medicines are running out."^[76] In July 2024, Noor Alyacoubi wrote about her struggles feeding her infant, including breastfeeding to prevent malnutrition.^[77] Alaa al-Nimer discussed being forced to give birth in the middle of the street.^[78] UN Women stated 55 percent of women reported health conditions impacting their ability to breastfeed, and 99 percent had difficulties obtaining enough breastmilk.^[79]

In July 2024, Doctors Without Borders warned about the impact of Gaza's destroyed health system on pregnant women, stating, "The main health risks for pregnant women are blood-pressure related complications such as eclampsia, hemorrhage, and sepsis—which can become deadly if not treated in time".^[80] In August 2024, the United Nations called for additional aid for pregnant women, stating "thousands of breastfeeding and pregnant women in the Gaza Strip are facing hunger and malnutrition of their children".^[81] In November 2024, hospital staff at al-Awda Hospital stated that Israeli forces shot two women entering the hospital who were about to give birth and who died bleeding in the street.^[82]

Due to the lack of clean water and access to menstrual hygiene products, many women in Gaza were reported to be taking norethisterone to delay their periods.^[83] Human Rights Watch reported that, given the lack clean water supplies to manage their menstrual hygiene, women face increased risks of hepatitis B and thrush.^[70]

Areas of armed conflict have increased risks to women and girls for gender-based violence, including sexual assault; UN reporting on cases of gender-based violence has been disrupted due to the displacement of UN workers. Overcrowded facilities being used as shelters, with limited bathrooms, increase those risks.^[72] The UNRWA has said that, as of 15 November 2023, that they had not seen an increase in such violence, but a spokesperson cautioned "Both sexual harassment and domestic violence tend to increase in prolonged periods of displacement."^[84] Women and men sheltering at UN facilities in the south of Gaza sleep in different sections to try to alleviate some of these risks.^[84] The lack of access to medical care also extends to the clinical treatment of rape.^[72]

Advocacy groups have also alleged that Palestinian women in Gaza have been subject to mass arrests by Israeli soldiers.^[85] According to the head of the Palestinian Prisoners' Society, Israel has arrested 153 women in Gaza since the outbreak of the war, including pregnant women.^[85] Some women were reportedly detained with their babies.^[85]

As a consequence of the conflict lasting over 100 days, UN Women reported that a minimum of 3,000 women could have been widowed and become heads of households, while at least 10,000 children may have been left fatherless. Women and children are the primary casualties in the Israel–Hamas war, with around 16,000 fatalities and approximately two mothers losing their lives every hour following Hamas' unexpected assault on Israel, as stated by the United Nations agency advocating for gender equality.^[86] On average, 63 women are killed in Gaza daily, of which 37 “are mothers who leave their families behind".^[87]

Women in the occupied West Bank have struggled with insecurity brought about by the ongoing conflict, including invasive searches and heightened travel restrictions.^[88] According to the director of the Women Union Committee in Jenin, "The psychological and economic suffering [Palestinian] women face is beyond imagination. When their husbands are in prison, or killed, or prevented from working in Palestine, the Palestinian women suffer."^[88] United Nations experts referred to "draconion restrictions on family unification and freedom of movement", as well as the risk of "arbitrary arrest and detention by Israeli occupation forces, which has kept [women] confined to their homes and deprived of their livelihoods," describing this risk as constant.^[7] The experts urged Israel to fulfill its duty as an occupying power to "prevent and protect women and girls ... from arbitrary detention, discrimination, and violence".^[7]

The United Nations experts have expressed deep concern regarding the arbitrary imprisonment of numerous Palestinian women and girls, including human rights activists, journalists, and aid workers, in Gaza and the West Bank. According to the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), many of them have endured cruel treatment, lack of basic necessities like menstrual pads, food, and medication, as well as brutal physical abuse. Shockingly, there have been instances where Palestinian women in Gaza were allegedly confined in a cage in harsh weather conditions without any sustenance.

The experts further highlighted disturbing reports of sexual violence against Palestinian women and girls in detention, such as invasive searches conducted by male Israeli soldiers. Tragically, it has been reported that at least two female detainees were sexually assaulted, while others were threatened with such heinous acts. Additionally, the experts mentioned that the Israeli army allegedly took degrading photos of female detainees and shared them online.^[89]

Many women in Israel have been affected by the slowdown in the economy during the war. Mothers struggle to return to work as child care frameworks have been suspended or operated in a partial emergency format. Many women had to move from their homes due to the evacuation of settlements.^[90] Independent women or business owners experienced even more severe economic damage due to the inability to operate their business during the war. It was also found that many women were put on unpaid leave and the economic consequences of the war on the labor market affected women more than men.^[91][92]

Women's involvement in combat roles in the IDF has increased significantly since the beginning of the 21st century, to the point that most combat roles are open to women, including flight, naval officers, armored corps, field intelligence, border police, special forces and more.^{[93] [clarification needed]}. Israel is one of a handful of countries where there is a mandatory conscription law for women.^[94]

In the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel, 14 field observers from Battalion 414 at Nahal Oz base were killed, an unprecedented number of female field soldiers killed in battle.^[95] Seven field observers were taken hostage. Additional field observers were locked in the war room and continued to work.^[96] From testimony after the event, it appears that in the months preceding the surprise attack, the field observers warned of Hamas' preparations for an attack, intelligence gathering and unusual training.^{[97][98][99][100][101]} According to the field observers, throughout this period, the senior command refused to listen to the warnings. "This is an apparatus made up entirely of young women and commanders," says one of them. "There is no doubt that if men were sitting at these screens, things would look different."^[102]

Women in the Caracal Battalion tank unit joined the fighting against dozens of Hamas militants on Highway 232 in the Gaza envelope. Later the crew identified four militants in Moshav Yated and subdued them. The crew continued driving the tank towards Holit, broke through the gate of the kibbutz and advanced to the focal point of the incident together with other fighters, They engaged for about 40 minutes against a squad of 20 militants until the militants were repelled and killed.^[103]

Lt. Col. Or Ben Yehuda, commander of the Caracal Battalion, fought at the head of a force that killed 15 armed Hamas militants in Yated after long hours of fighting.^[104] In the Battle of Sufa her battalion killed over a hundred Hamas militants under her command, and together with Shayetet 13 cleared the outpost of infiltrators saving the lives of dozens of soldiers.^[105]

Women in the Israeli Air Force performed a variety of roles from the first day of the war. This includes pilots, combat navigators,^[106] and unmanned aerial vehicle operators.^[5] For the first time, 2 women were set to enter the elite 669 search and rescue unit.^[107]

• Colonel Yarden Shukron-Yifrach, commander of Shahar Battalion in the Rescue and Training Brigade of the Home Front Command, led a force that fought militants on Zikim Beach and in Ofakim.^[5] In November, this battalion was also the first to introduce female IDF combat soldiers to join ground forces in Gaza.^[108]
• Commanders and fighters from the Lions of the Jordan Battalion participated in combat in the surrounding area.^[5]
• Female soldiers participated in combat in the Navy in various roles,^[109] such as maritime control operators, as well as saboteurs and fighters on warships.^[5]
• Officers from the Home Front Command in a liaison unit to the local authority, in dozens of cities and authorities across the country, managing civilian readiness for missile attacks and returning to routine afterwards.^[110]
• Lieutenant Ilan Elharar, commander of Battalion 13 of the Golani Brigade's Nahal Oz command post, rescued 7 soldiers from an attack by hundreds of militants on the command post.^[111]

Female officers played a significant role in Israel Police activities with the outbreak of the war. Six policewomen were killed in the line of duty.^[112] Staff Sergeant Major Mor Shakuri was killed in a fight with militants on the roof of the Sderot Police Station. Senior policewomen were killed in battle with militants in Yakhini and Kibbutz Re'im.^[113]

• Effect of the Israel–Hamas war on children in the Gaza Strip