York (explorer)

York
York statue at Riverfront Plaza/Belvedere, Louisville, Kentucky
Born	1770–75 Ladysmith, Caroline County, Virginia Colony
Died	After 1815
Occupation(s)	Body servant (enslaved), explorer
Employer	Enslaved by William Clark
Known for	Participating in the Lewis and Clark Expedition
Spouse	1
Parent(s)	Old York, Rose
Relatives	Juba (brother), Nancy (sister), Scipio (half-brother), Daphney (half-sister)
Military career
Service / branch	United States Army
Years of service	1803–1806
Rank	Sergeant (honorary posthumous – Presidential citation)
Commands	Corps of Discovery

York (1770–75 – after 1815)^[1] was an American explorer^[2] and historic figure, being the only African-American member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He participated in the entire exploration and made significant contributions to its success.^{[3]: 302 [4]: 152} He was the first African American to cross the continent and see the Pacific.^[4] He has become an American icon and several monuments depicting him have been erected honoring his legacy.^[5][6][7]

York was born enslaved, the son of Old York and Rose, who had been enslaved by John Clark III, William Clark's father.^[8] William inherited York from his father in 1799. York was a large man; his weight has been estimated as 200 pounds (91 kg).^[9] He was about the same age as Clark, perhaps a few years older or younger, and naturally strong.^{[10][page needed][11]} His skin was dark: he was "black as a bear", said one who knew him,^[12] and his hair was short and curly.^[13] Like most of the enslaved, York was illiterate, and information about him is scant.

York expected to be given his freedom after the successful expedition was over, in view of what he called his "immense services",^[11] but Clark refused repeatedly and became angry when York would not go back willingly to his pre-expedition role of submissive body servant. He also expressed irritation at York's insistence on remaining in Louisville, where his wife and possibly children were. He whipped York and eventually sold him.^[4][9]

Documentation concerning York is lacking for the years immediately following the expedition. About 20 years later, Clark told Washington Irving that he had freed York and set him up in business, giving him six horses and a large wagon to start a drayage business moving goods between Nashville and Richmond.^[4] However, according to Clark as reported by Irving, York was lazy, would not get up in the morning, did not take good care of his horses, longed to return to slavery, and died of cholera. However, the credibility of this report is dubious.

York was born in Caroline County near Ladysmith, Virginia. His skin was dark colored.^[4]: 142 He and several members of his family were enslaved by the Clark family. The will of John Clark III (father of George Rogers and William Clark) states:^[14]

I give and bequeath to my son Edmund... three slaves, to wit Peter (Vegas child), and Scipio and Darathy (Rose's children)... I give and bequeath to my son William... one black man named York, also old York and his wife Rose, and their two children, Nancy and Juba; also three old negroes, Tame, Cupid and Harry.

The most plausible family tree based on this description and others is that York was the son of Old York, not by Rose, that Scipio (also spelled Sippo, Seppo, Sep, and Pipo, likely named the same as the Roman general Scipio Africanus) and Daphny (also spelled Dafney, Daphney, and Daphne) were Rose's children not by Old York, and that Nancy and Juba were Old York and Rose's biological children.^{[15][page needed]} This would make Scipio, Daphney, Juba, and Nancy the half-siblings of York.

William Clark called York his "playmate".^{[16][failed verification]} He was Clark's "body servant".^[9]

There is a single, unsupported oral report, from 1965, that York also had the name Ben. The name never appears in any of the many records of the Lewis and Clark expedition, nor in any other document.^[8]: 38

York "participated fully in the journey and contributed in significant ways to its success."^[3]: 302 The records of the well-documented trip do not reveal any racial bias against him.^[17]: 5 For all intents and purposes, York's role in Lewis and Clark's Corps of Discovery was equal to that of the expedition's white men.^[9] He could swim, which many of the troupe could not.^{[17]: 11, 40} He was allowed to use a rifle, something the enslaved were not ordinarily permitted. When a decision had to be made, York's vote counted equally with those of the white men. The expedition apparently held none of the enslaved's usual restrictions on movement, and while opportunities to escape may have appeared, York remained with the Corps of Discovery.

A modern writer^[who?] has called York indispensable to the expedition. The journals are peppered with references to York's hunting prowess: he shot buffalo, deer, and geese alike. His use of a rifle is highly unusual and shows the trust expedition members had in him. His skill in hunting with a rifle may have antedated the expedition.^[17]: 13 He also kept his eye out for new species, for which the expedition was searching. He played a major role in the heavy work of paddling upstream, portaging, and building shelters.^[18] He aided in navigating trails and waterways.^[9]

York's most spectacular contributions were with the Native American tribes the expedition came into contact with, whose assistance was sometimes very necessary. According to the journals of the expedition, York's blackness served as a passport with them; they were impressed by such a "strange creature".^[4]: 57 According to Richard Betts, he was "the main attraction in Lewis and Clark's travelling magic show."^[4]: 58 York was a sensation.^[18]

The following excerpts are from the expedition's official report:

[October 9, 1804] The object which appeared to astonish the Indians most, was captain Clark’s servant [slave] York, a remarkable stout strong negro. They had never seen a being of that colour, and therefore flocked round him to examine the extraordinary monster. By way of amusement he told them that he had once been a wild animal, and caught and tamed by his master, and to convince them, showed them feats of strength, which added to his looks made him more terrible than we wished him to be.^{[19]: 101–102}

[October 10, 1804] ...after this the airgun was exhibited, very much to their astonishment, nor were they less surprised at the colour and manner of York.^[19]: 102

[October 12, 1804] These women are handsomer than the Sioux; both of them are however, disposed to be amorous, and our men found no difficulty in procuring companions for the night by means of the interpreters. These interviews were chiefly clandestine, and were of course to be kept a secret from the husband or relations. The point of honour indeed, is completely reversed among the Ricaras; that the wife or the sister should submit to a stranger's embraces without the consent of her husband or brother, is a cause of great disgrace and offence, especially as for many purposes of civility or gratitude the husband and brother will themselves present to a stranger these females, and be gratified by attentions to them. The Sioux had offered us squaws, but while we remained there having declined, they followed us with offers of females for two days. The Ricaras had been equally accommodating; we had equally withstood their temptation; but such was their desire to oblige that two very handsome young squaws were sent on board this evening, and persecuted us with civilities. The black man York participated largely in these favours; for instead of inspiring any prejudice, his colour seemed to procure him additional advantages from the Indians, who desired to preserve among them some memorial of this wonderful stranger. Among other instances of attention, a Ricara invited him into his house and presenting his wife to him, retired to the outside of the door: while there one of York’s comrades who was looking for him came to the door, but the gallant husband would permit no interruption before a reasonable time had elapsed.^{[19]: 105–106 [8][page needed]} (Numerous other reports confirm that women of these tribes, with their husbands' encouragement, would seek to have sexual intercourse with white men.^[20][21])

[October 15, 1804] [T]he fair sex received our men with more than hospitality. York was here again an object of astonishment; the children would follow him constantly, and if he chanced to turn towards them, run with great terror.^[19]: 100

[October 28, 1804] In the mean while we entertained our visitors by showing them what was new to them in the boat; all which, as well our black servant, they called Great Medicine, the meaning of which we afterwards learnt.^[19]: 119

The whole religion of the Mandans consists in the belief of one great spirit presiding over their destinies. This being must be in the nature of a good genius since it is associated with the healing art, and the great spirit is synonymous with great medicine, a name also applied to every thing which they do not comprehend.^[19]: 138

[March 9, 1805] In the course of the conversation, the chief observed that some foolish young men of his nation had told him there was a person among us who was quite black, and he wished to know if it could be true. We assured him that it was true, and sent for York: the Borgne [Indian chief] was very much surprised at his appearance, examined him closely, and spit on his finger and rubbed the skin in order to wash off the paint; nor was it until the negro uncovered his head, and showed his short hair, that the Borgne could be persuaded that he was not a painted white man.^[19]: 168

[August 17, 1805] They had indeed abundant sources of suspiscion in all they saw: the appearance of the men, their arms, their clothing, the canoes, the strange looks of the negro, and the sagacity of our dog, all in turn shared their admiration.^[19]: 384

York is not mentioned by name, but at their 1805–06 winter camp on the Columbia River, Indians brought their women to market "for a fishinghook or a string of beads", resulting in cases of "venereal disease".^[17]: 43

The memory of York persisted in Indian oral tradition until the 20th century.^[17]: 39

On November 18, 1805, York accompanied Clark to a tree at Cape Disappointment State Park, Washington, where Clark added his name to Lewis's and carved in the tree "By Land from the U. States in 1804 & 1805".^[10] York became the first African-American man to reach the Pacific Ocean when he walked nineteen miles (30 km) from camp with Clark.^[4] In late November, all the members of a party, including York and Sacagawea, were consulted by the leaders as to where to camp for the winter.^[4] According to Martin Plamondon II, to call this a vote, as it is often called, is to create a myth; there is no implication that the vote of the majority would be followed. He calls it "polling" rather than voting.^[22] In a reply, Dayton Duncan notes that Clark wrote down the views on the question of every member of the expedition, including York and Sacagawea. This was itself very unusual. The men believed that they, not the leaders, had made the decision. According to Duncan, it was a vote.^[23] Glen Kirkpatrick disagrees.^[24]

The name York is mentioned in the Lewis and Clark journals 135 times.^[5]

• York is first mentioned in Clark's journal on December 26, 1803, when Clark mentions that York and Corporal Whitehouse had been working with the whipsaws, indicating that he was already working with the other men on the expedition.^[4]
• Clark mentions York again in his journal on June 5, 1804, noting that York had swum to a sand bar from the keelboat in order to collect some greens for dinner.^[4] The majority of the men on the expedition could not swim.
• Clark and another man said that, on June 20, 1804, York almost lost his eye during an assault/altercation when he had sand thrown at him.^[8]
• York was mentioned again in Clark's journal after a small party including York descended the Spirit Mound Historic Prairie. Clark said that "York was nearly exhausted by the heat, thirst and fatigue". Clark said this was because York was too fat and unaccustomed to walking quickly.^[8]
• In September 1804 it was noted that while on a hunting party York had killed an elk.^[8] There is no record of York having trained to use a firearm, which was not generally allowed for slaves.

All the men of the expedition except York received double pay according to rank, $5 to $30 per month, and each enlisted man was granted 320 acres (130 ha) of land. York, as a slave, received nothing.^[10]

Contrary to the general belief that Clark freed York immediately after their return, York remained enslaved and the property of Clark for at least five more years.^[4]: 107 He accompanied Clark on the latter's celebratory visit to Washington D.C. in 1807, and when Clark moved his family to St. Louis to take up his new position as brigadier general of the militia and Superintendent of Indian Affairs in the new territory.^[4]: 110

Historian Robert Betts said the freedom York had during the Lewis and Clark expedition made resuming enslavement unbearable.^{[4][pages needed]} York asked Clark for his freedom based upon his good services during the expedition.

"It is shown that York had gained a little freedom while on the expedition with Lewis and Clark. It is mentioned in journals that York went on scouting trips and going to trade with villages, experiencing freedom while doing that. Clark named two geographic discoveries after him; York's Eight Islands and York's Dry Creek, indicating that Clark may have respected him. When a poll was taken to decide where the group should stay over one winter, York's vote was recorded. He was also able to swim, unlike some of the men who were with them on their expedition."^{[This quote needs a citation]}

In 1988, 47 letters written by Clark to his brother Jonathan were discovered; written between 1792 and 1811, they were published as a volume in 2002.^[15] Information concerning York was one of the main surprises in the letters, according to their editor James J. Holmberg.^[15]: 2 From them we learn the previously unknown fact that York had a wife, and that his marriage antedated the expedition,^[15]: 98 which was deliberately made up primarily of unmarried men, like Lewis and Clark themselves.^{[15]: 59 [4]: 104} All that is known of his wife is that she was from the Louisville area, where Clark and York lived before the expedition, and that she was enslaved by someone other than Clark. York's attempts to persuade Clark to let him return to the Louisville area led to a serious falling-out between them in 1808.^[15]: 98

That year Clark moved to St. Louis, to take up his new duties as US agent for Indian affairs. York and other household members moved with him. By November 1808, Clark was angered by York's refusal to accept the move to St. Louis and repeated requests that he be hired out in Louisville or sold to someone there. As Clark wrote his brother when finally giving in, he decided to

send York...and promit him to Stay a few weeks with his wife. he wishes to Stay there altogether and hire himself which I have refused. he prefers being Sold to return[ing] here, he is Serviceable to me at this place, and I am determined not to Sell him to gratify him, and have derected him to return.^[4]: 157

York was sent to work for a strict Louisville nephew, John H. Clark.^[4]: 158 A few weeks later, Clark mentions York again to his brother:

I did wish to do well by him, but as he has got Such a notion about freedom and his emence [immense] Services, that I do not expect he will be of much Service to me again; I do not think with him, that his Services has [sic] been so great/or my Situation would promit me to liberate him.^[4]: 158

Clark believed that York would not provide "service" in St. Louis, and this angered him. He wrote his brother again that he would have punished York, and that if he is hired out in Kentucky, it should be with a "Severe Master" so that after "a while he may do Some Service, I do not wish him again in this Country until he applies himself to Come and give over that wife of his—I wished him to Stay with his family four or five weeks only, and not 4 or 5 months."^[4]: 159

York was forced to return to St. Louis, where Clark found him "insolent and sulky". To "mend" this, Clark whipped York ("gave him a Severe trouncing"). He put him in jail ("Caleboos", slang Spanish calabozo) in July 1809.^[15]: 204 By August Clark had decided "to hire or Sell him".^[4]: 163 This is the last mention of York in the letters written by William Clark. A 1811 letter from a Louisville relative reported that "I don't like him nor does any other person in this country",^[4]: 164 and also that the owner of York's wife was going to move to Natchez, Mississippi.^{[4]: 164 [15]: 98} York was hired out as a wagoner, making deliveries in Louisville; the last reference to him is from 1815.^[4]: 167 Another report has him transporting goods between Nashville and Richmond.

None of the information in Clark's letters was known to the general public in the 19th and 20th centuries. During that long period, a report by Washington Irving provided the only account of York's later life. By then a successful writer, Irving visited Clark at his home near St. Louis in 1832.^[4]: 71 Irving may have been the one to ask about York, as his account labels York "the hero of the expedition", which Clark is unlikely to have stated:

His slaves—set them free—one he placed at a ferry—another on a farm, giving him land, horses, &c.—a third he gave a large wagon & team of 6 horses to ply between Nashville and Richmond. They all repented & wanted to come back.

The wagoner was York, the hero of the Missouri expedition & adviser of the Indians. He could not get up early enough in the morning—his horses were ill kept—two died—the others grew poor. He sold them, was cheated—entered into service—fared ill. Damn this freedom, said York. I have never had a happy day since I got it. He determined to go back to his old master—set off for S^t Louis, but was taken with the cholera in Tennessee & died. Some of the traders think they have met traces of York's crowd, on the Missouri.^[4]: 119

Historians have been unable to verify these claims.^[25] Manumission of a slave was a formal process that required documentation. No known documents exist confirming that Clark ever freed York. According to Darrell Millner, there is nothing to corroborate any of these claims, and York's alleged desire to return to slavery "lacks historical foundation".^[3]: 310 Clark's story is self-serving and reflects pro-slavery arguments that Africans were happy to be slaves and could not lead successful lives as free people.^{[3]: 306–307} Millner further states that it is "much more likely" that York was never freed.^[11]

Zenas Leonard was a fur trader who in 1839 published a memoir of his travels over several years throughout the upper West. Modern scholars consider it highly reliable.^{[4]: 139–140} (He was the first to see and publish a description of the huge trees we call redwoods.) He reported meeting twice, once outbound and again when returning, "a negro man" living well among the Crows of what is today north-central Wyoming. The identity of the Black man, who purportedly said he had returned from St. Louis after first visiting the area with Lewis and Clark, has been subject to speculation.

In this village we found a negro man, who informed us that he first came to this country with Lewis & Clark—with whom he also returned to the State of Missouri, and in a few years returned again with a Mr. Mackinney [Kenneth McKenzie] a trader on the Missouri river, and has remained here ever since—which is about ten or twelve years. He has acquired a correct knowledge of their manner of living, and speaks their language fluently. He has rose [sic] to be quite a considerable character, or chief, in their village; at least he assumes all the dignities of a chief, for he has four wives, with whom he lives alternately. This is the custom of many of the chiefs.^[26]: 26

On the return, Leonard met the same man again, in 1834:

It will be recollected that I was amongst these Indians once before, when some of our horses were stolen and we followed them into the Crow village, – where we found our horses and also a negro man, in the winter of 1832–33. This man we found to be of as great advantage to us now as on former occasions, as he has become thoroughly acquainted with their language, method of transacting their public and private business, and considered of great value by the Indians. He enjoys perfect peace and satisfaction, and has every thing he desires at his own command.^[26]: 74

Again and again did they return to the charge, but all was of no use — all their efforts were of no avail — confusion began to spread through their ranks — many appeared overwhelmed with despair — and the whole Crow nation was about to retreat from the field, when the negro, who has been heretofore mentioned, and who had been in company with us, advanced a few steps towards the Crows and ascended a rock from which he addressed the Crow warriors in the most earnest and impressive manner. He told them that they had been here making a great noise, as if they could kill the enemy by it — that they had talked long and loud about going into the fort, and that the white men would say the Indian had a crooked tongue, when talking about his war exploits. He told them that their hearts were small, and that they were cowardly — that they acted more like squaws than men, and were not fit to defend their hunting ground. He told them that the white men were ashamed of them and would refuse to trade with such a nation of cowards — that the Blackfeet would go home and tell their people that three thousand Crows could not take a handful of them, - that they would be laughed at, scorned, and treated with contempt by all nations wherever known — that no tribe would degrade themselves hereafter by waging war with them, and that the whole Crow nation, once so powerful, would forever after be treated as a nation of squaws. The old negro continued in this strain until they became greatly animated & told them that if the red man was afraid to go amongst his enemy, he would show them that a black man was not, and he leaped from the rock on which he had been standing, and, looking neither to the right nor to the left, made for the fort as fast as he could run. The Indians guessing his purpose, and inspired by his words and fearless example, followed close to his heels, and were in the fort dealing destruction to the right and left nearly as soon as the old man.^{[26]: 79–80}

Edward Rose was a fur trapper who lived for three years among the Crow and spoke their language. He was employed by Europeans as guide and interpreter. However, in a letter that only appeared in the late 1930s, Rose was killed by Indians during the winter of 1832–33, which means he could have not have been the black man Leonard saw in 1834.^[4]: 138 In addition, Rose's father was white and his mother was half Black and half Cherokee, so he was not "a negro man".^[4]: 137

James Beckwourth, who left a lengthy autobiography,^[27] was a former slave who lived among the Crow much of the time between 1829 and 1836. However, Leonard refers to an "old negro", and Beckwourth was born in 1798 or 1800, so he would have been in his early 30s when Leonard came in contact with the old negro; according to Betts, this "all but rules him out". Beckwourth also would have been a small child at the time of the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1803–1806. While Beckworth claims to have led the Crows' attack on the Blackfoot described by Leonard, he was "notorious" for "just plain lying" and claiming others' deeds as his own. He was called a humbug by one who knew him. "I knew Jim intimately and he was the biggest liar that ever lived."^[28] In addition, he was not negroid in appearance. His father was white, and the ethnicity of his mother is not known, but she may well have been no more than half or a quarter Black (quadroon). He never described himself as Black, and he "resembled an Indian so much as to pass for one."^[27]: 9 Three people who saw him mistook him for a white man. "On the basis of both age and appearance, Beckwourth having been Leonard's 'old negro' simply does not stand up."^{[4]: 140–142}

Historian William Gwaltney, in a study of black fur traders, asserts that the man was likely John Brazeau, a black Sioux war leader. "It was very likely that Brazeau told Zenas Leonard that he had come west with Lewis and Clark. As far as anyone can tell, Brazeau was telling a bald faced lie, probably for fun."^[29] A John Brazeau was an employee of the American Fur Company and founded Braseau's Houses, a trading post on the Yellowstone River.^[30] Frank Grouard, an interpreter, was said to have been "the son of an American Fur Company employee named John Brazeau."^[31]

The man described by Leonard, who is never named and presumably did not want his name known, fits York's description in size, complexion, and age.^[32] Besides the statement that he was big, the only thing known about York's appearance is that his skin was very dark. He was a Black man, which neither Rose nor Beckwourth was. The man's success and comfort living with the Crows also supports York's identification. After his wife was taken to Natchez, York no longer had a reason to remain in Louisville, and he was quite upset at Clark's refusal to grant him his freedom, given his "immense services" during the expedition. It may be supposed that York ran away from his owner and was able to travel from St. Louis up the Missouri to Montana, some 1,500 miles (2,400 km).

There is no doubt from the journals written during the expedition that York played a vital role in its success. Not only did he fulfill his duties as a laborer along the expedition, the journals also suggest that the color of York's skin intrigued the Native tribes so much they seemingly gave the expedition a pass through the land as well as commencing with trade.^[4] The journals also suggest that York had gained the respect of many of the men who were part of the expedition as well.^[4]

Part of a series on
Forced labour and slavery
Contemporary Child Labour Child soldiers Conscription Debt Forced marriage Bride buying Child marriage Wife selling Forced prostitution Human trafficking Involuntary servitude Peonage Penal labour Contemporary Africa 21st-century jihadism Sexual slavery Wage slavery
Historical Antiquity Egypt Babylonia Greece Rome Medieval Europe Ancillae Black Sea slave trade Byzantine Empire Kholop Prague slave trade Serfs History In Russia Emancipation Thrall Genoese slave trade Venetian slave trade Balkan slave trade Muslim world Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate Slavery in al-Andalus ‎ Baqt Contract of manumission Bukhara slave trade Crimean slave trade Khazar slave trade Khivan slave trade Ottoman Empire Avret Pazarları Barbary Coast slave trade pirates Sack of Baltimore Slave raid of Suðuroy Turkish Abductions Concubinage history Ma malakat aymanukum Avret Pazarları Harem Abbasid harem Ottoman Imperial Harem Safavid imperial harem Qajar harem Jarya/Cariye Odalisque Qiyan Umm al-walad Circassian slave trade Saqaliba Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate Volga Bulgarian slave trade 21st century Atlantic slave trade Bristol Brazil Database Dutch Middle Passage Nantes New France Panyarring Spanish Empire Slave Coast Thirteen colonies Topics and practice Conscription Ghilman Mamluk Devshirme Blackbirding Coolie Corvée labour Field slaves in the United States Treatment House slaves Saqaliba Slave market Slave raiding Child soldiers White slavery Naval Galley slave Impressment Pirates Shanghaiing Slave ship
By country or region Sub-Saharan Africa Contemporary Africa Trans-Saharan slave trade Red Sea slave trade Indian Ocean slave trade Zanzibar slave trade Angola Chad Comoros Ethiopia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Seychelles Somalia Somali slave trade South Africa Sudan Zanzibar North and South America Pre-Columbian America Aztec Americas indigenous U.S. Natives United States Field slaves female Contemporary maps partus prison labour Slave codes Treatment interregional Human trafficking The Bahamas Canada Caribbean Barbados British Virgin Islands Trinidad Code Noir Latin America Brazil Lei Áurea Colombia Cuba Haiti revolt Restavek (Encomienda) Puerto Rico East, Southeast, and South Asia Human trafficking in Southeast Asia Bhutan Brunei China Booi Aha Laogai penal system India Debt bondage Chukri System Indonesia Japan comfort women Korea Kwalliso Malaysia Maldives Slavery in the Mongol Empire Thailand Yankee princess Vietnam Australia and Oceania Australia Human trafficking Blackbirding Slave raiding in Easter Island Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea Blackbirding in Polynesia Europe and North Asia Sex trafficking in Europe United Kingdom Penal Labour Slavery Denmark Dutch Republic Germany in World War II Malta Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia Spain Sweden North Africa and West Asia Afghanistan Algeria Bahrain Egypt Human trafficking in the Middle East Iran Iraq Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Libya Morocco Oman Palestine Saudi Arabia Syria Tunisia Qatar Yemen United Arab Emirates
Religion Bible Christianity Catholicism Mormonism Islam Judaism Baháʼí Faith
Opposition and resistance Abolitionism U.K. U.S. Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90 Temporary Slavery Commission 1926 Slavery Convention Committee of Experts on Slavery Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery Abolitionists Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention Anti-Slavery International Blockade of Africa U.K. U.S. Colonization Liberia Sierra Leone Compensated emancipation Freedman Manumission Freedom suit Slave Power Underground Railroad songs Slave rebellion Slave Trade Acts International law Third Servile War 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf [fa]
Related Common law Indentured servitude Forced labour Fugitive slaves laws convention Great Dismal Swamp maroons List of slaves owners last survivors of American slavery List of slavery-related memorials and museums Slave marriages in the United States Slave narrative films songs Slave name Slave catcher Slave patrol Slave Route Project breeding court cases Washington Jefferson J.Q. Adams Lincoln Emancipation Proclamation 40 acres Freedmen's Bureau Iron bit Emancipation Day
v t e

Darrell Millner has studied how York has been shaped and presented over 200 years. He classifies scholarly treatment of York into what he calls two broad categories: the Sambo school, which has been the main trend until very recently, and the superhero school.

The Sambo version of York presents him as a happy slave, but, like all slaves, much in need of a white owner to run his life better than he could himself. In the Sambo tradition, York is neither manly nor heroic, qualities only whites can have. His role and contributions are systematically reduced to behavior that was considered fitting and appropriate for a negro, ignoring the positive aspects of York's character and his contributions, distorting some incidents to cast them in the most unfavorable light possible, and projecting onto York unsubstantiated qualities, such as a thick "Negro" dialect and an insatiable sexual appetite.^{[3]: 306–307}

In contrast, the superhero presentation of York has elevated him "to near superhuman status and his contributions to the expedition were unsurpassed by others in the Corps of Discovery. The superhero York is the quintessential role model, a courageous, ingenious, brave, and self-sacrificing black hero who has overcome all of the obstacles that slavery and a hostile frontier threw at him. This York ultimately prevails; he is a figure not only for blacks to admire but also for them to emulate."^[3]: 307

• In 1972, one of the six sections of Peter Michaelson's poem/essay "Bestride the Mighty and Heretofore Deemed Endless Missouri: An Essay on the Corps of Discovery", deals with York.^[33]
• As part of the Lewis and Clark bicentennial celebrations of 2003, the opera York was presented at the Penn State Opera Theater. Composer was Bruce Trinkley and librettist was Jason Charnesky.^[34]
• A one-man play, York, was created by playwright Bryan Harnetiaux in collaboration with actor and African drummer David Casteal, and premiered at Spokane Civic Theatre, Spokane, Washington, on April 29, 2005, directed by Susan Hardie and performed (with African drumming) by Casteal. According to author Harnetiaux, "One element you see is the affinity between York’s African drumming experience and the Native American drumming". There were off-Broadway performances in New York City in July 2006, and a short production run in 2008.^[35] In commemoration of Black History Month, the play was again presented in Spokane on February 27–28, 2016, again with David Casteal.^[36] It was repeated February 2, 2018.^[37]
• Kentucky poet Frank X Walker has written two books of poetry about York: Buffalo Dance: The Journey of York (2004), and When Winter Come: The Ascension of York (2008). According to the publisher, the University of Kentucky Press, "This collection of persona poems tells the story of the infamous Lewis & Clark expedition from the point of view of Clark's personal slave, York. The poems form a narrative of York's inner and outer journey, before, during and after the expedition—a journey from slavery to freedom, from the plantation to the great northwest, from servant to soul yearning to be free." The books were very well received: "Singly and together, these books are a great success: they portray the complex character of York, [and] they enrich our understanding of an important chapter in American history", wrote William Joliff in a review article.^[38]

In his novel Little Big Man, Thomas Berger mentions York as having possibly been the father of some dark-skinned Indians.

• York appears in several paintings by Western artist Charles Marion Russell. In the painting commonly known as Lewis and Clark meeting the Mandan Indians, 1897, York is well and distinctively dressed.^[17]: 20 In the painting Louis and Clark on the Lower Columbia, 1905, he is seen from the back, working, and in plain slave clothing.^[39] In York, 1908, no European Americans are present. York meets with Native Americans, who are curious about him, examining his dark skin.^[40]
• "Bilalian Odyssey", by Isaka Shamsud-din (1983) "transfers York from the periphery to the center of the dramatic story of which he is a part."^[41]: 472
• In 1988, the sculpture The Naming of Mt. Jefferson, by Michael Florin Dente, was erected on the campus of the University of Portland. It portrays William Clark, York, and an unnamed Native American.^[3] According to the artist, the work stands as "a visual reminder that three races contributed to the success of the Lewis and Clark Expedition—symbolic of the first integrated society in the Oregon country."^[41]: 472 In 2020, the statue of York was removed from the sculpture.^[42]
• In July 1989, a statue group by sculptor Bob Scriver, "Explorers at the Portage", was erected in Overlook Park in Great Falls, Montana. It depicts Meriwether Lewis, William Clark, York, and the expedition's dog, Seaman, surveying the junction of the Missouri and Sun rivers. Scriver donated a copy of the work, now with Sacagawea added (photo above), to the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail Interpretive Center, located near the city on the Crooked Falls of the Great Falls of the Missouri River.^[43][44][45]
• In 1989, the Oregon Historical Society commissioned Richard Haas to create eight-story-high murals for the former Sovereign Hotel, which at the time it owned. One mural depicts the people of the Lewis & Clark Expedition, including York and Sacagawea.^[46]
• York's Stripes, by Porter Williams, 1998, shows the stripes of York's whipping on his back.^[11] link
• In 2000, Yorks Islands was accepted by the U.S. Board of Geographic Names as designation for an archipelago of islands in the Missouri River in Broadwater County, Montana,^[47][48] which were named for York by the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The privately owned islands were called by Clark "York's 8 Islands",^[49] but have since become known as "York's Islands" or simply "Yorks Islands".^[50] A small tributary of the Yellowstone River was also named for York.^[51]
• Western artist Michael Haynes in 2000 produced "Proud Hunter", an illustration of York alone, carrying a small deer. link
• 2000: Eugene Daub, Lewis and Clark Statue, at Clark's Point, in Case Park on Kansas City, Missouri. Depics Lewis, Clark, York, Sacajawea, and Seaman.^[52] link
• In 2000, York was mentioned on a historical marker at the former location of Mulberry Hill, Clark's family home in Louisville.^[53] link
• In 2001, President Bill Clinton posthumously granted York the rank of honorary sergeant in the United States Army.^[54]
• In 2001, York was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners at the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.^[55]
• The City Council of Portland in 2002, voted to affirm that "York Street", the origins of which name are unknown, is to be understood as referring to this York.^[56][57]
• In 2003, a statue of York, by sculptor Ed Hamilton, with plaques commemorating the Lewis and Clark Expedition and his participation in it, was placed on Louisville's Riverfront Plaza/Belvedere, next to the wharf on the Ohio River.^[58]
• Also in Louisville in 2003, the Kentucky Historical Society and the Kentucky Department of Highways erected a historical marker along the Ohio River.^[59] link
• York has a prominent place in the 2005 mural of the expedition by David McClain, in Liberty, Missouri.^[60] link
• 2008: Lewis and Clark Trailhead Monument, by Sabra Tull Meyer, Jefferson City, Missouri.^[61] Group depicts, left to right, York, Lewis, Seaman, Clark, and interpreter George Druillard. Funding problems had delayed it since 2002.^[62][63] link
• 2010: York: Terra Incognita, a 6 feet (1.8 m) bronze statue by Alison Saar, was installed on the campus of Lewis and Clark College, in Portland, Oregon. Since we do not know what York looked like, the artist focused instead on the statue's back, making it a focal point. The back is "scarred" with sections of William Clark's maps.^[64] The project was begun by four law students.^[65]
• In 2021, a 4 feet (1.2 m) bust of York on a pedestal, which formerly contained a statue of anti-Native American pioneer Harvey W. Scott, was secretly installed in Mount Tabor Park, Portland, Oregon, Attached to the pedestal was a paper plaque describing York's role in the Lewis and Clark expedition. The artist at first was unknown, but he subsequently revealed that he was Todd McGrain.^[66] The bust was toppled and seriously damaged in July 2021. A white supremacist group, Patriot Front, is suspected.^[67]

There are no writings by York, as he was illiterate. The bitterness between him and Clark prevented him from telling his story for publication as a slave narrative.

• General
  • Betts, Robert (2000) [1985]. In Search of York: The Slave Who Went to the Pacific with Lewis and Clark. Includes an "Afterwards" by James J. Holberg (Revised ed.). Denver: Colorado Associated University Press. ISBN 0-87081-714-0.
  • Millner, Darrell M. (Fall 2003). "York of the Corps of Discovery: Interpretations of York's Character and His Role in the Lewis and Clark Expedition". Oregon Historical Quarterly. 104 (3): 302–333. doi:10.1353/ohq.2003.0005. JSTOR 20615343. S2CID 165692798.
  • Parks, Shoshi (March 8, 2018). "York Explored the West With Lewis and Clark, But His Freedom Wouldn't Come Until Decades Later". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 2020-05-20. Retrieved 2020-04-21.
• Screenplay
  • Ferraro & Stewart, Thomas E. & Jon (2019). York. Chicago, IL: Red Dock, Inc.
• Children's books
  • Steenwyk, Elizabeth (2000). My Name is York. Northland Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87358-758-7.
  • Gustafson, R. W. (2000). York : the slave who helped explore America. Conrad, Montana: The author. ISBN 1-84197-076-X.
  • Blumberg, Rhoda (2004). York's adventures with Lewis and Clark : an African-American's part in the great expedition. New York: Collins. ISBN 0-06-009113-4.
  • Murphy, Claire Rudolf (2005). I Am Sacajawea, I Am York : Our Journey West with Lewis and Clark. Walker & Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-8919-8.
  • Pringle, Laurence (2006). American slave, American hero : York of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Honesdale, Pennsylvania: Calkins Creek Books. ISBN 1-59078-282-8.
  • Phillips, Brad (2006). York: A Slave's Journey With Lewis and Clark. Nephi, Utah: Apricot Press. ISBN 978-1-885027-36-8.
  • Jaime, Catherine McGrew (2011). York proceeded on : the Lewis & Clark Expedition through the eyes of their forgotten member. Madison, Alabama: Creative Learning Connection. ISBN 978-1-4565-8936-3.
  • Davis, Hasan (2019). The Journey of York: Unsung Hero of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. North Mankato, Minnesota: Capstone Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5435-1290-8.

• 2005: York, the slave of William Clark. 16:34. Produced for the Lewis and Clark Bicentennial by Executive Productions, Seattle.^[68]
• 2009: Searching for York. 29:01. Oregon Public Broadcasting.^[69]
• 2017: York: One Man's Story. 6:56. Lewis and Clark National Historical Park.^[70]
• 2018: York: American's Forgotten Explorer. 18:48. Stefan Milo.^[71]
• 2020: A Conversation with Hasan Davis: York, Equity, Race and the Lewis and Clark Story. 58:28. Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail, National Park Service.^[72]
• 2020: York: The African American Man Traveling with the Lewis & Clark Expedition. 8:16. BrightRoad2Success.^[73]
• 2021: Lewis & Clark State Historic Site, Illinois Department of Natural Resources.
  • York Before the Expedition. 9:16.^[74]
  • Building the Team VII: York On the Expedition. 8:30.^[75]
  • York After the Expedition 10:40.^[76]

• Estevanico
• List of people from the Louisville metropolitan area
• List of enslaved people
• Shields Green
• Stephen Bishop (cave explorer), another accomplished African-American slave from Kentucky, renowned as an explorer
• Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition

• Robert Betts, In Search of York: The Slave Who Went to the Pacific With Lewis and Clark. University Press of Colorado, 2000 (revised edition).
• James Holmberg, Dear Brother: Letters of William Clark to Jonathan Clark. Yale University Press, 2002
• National Park Service (2018), York

• Lewis and Clark Journals, Members of the Expedition (U. Nebraska)
• Recognizing York: A Community Initiative. Lewis and Clark College, Portland
• Vote 4 York Black Heritage Stamp 2013, Jackson Davis V