Puberty and Mood

Puberty is a period of development characterized by significant physical changes and sexual maturation. With these massive changes occurring, our mood can be influenced during this time as well. Substantive changes like puberty have the potential to put adolescents more at risk for mood disorders and affect how adolescents experience mood. Studies have found that the risk for depressed mood is at its peak during mid-adolescence.^[1]

Several studies have shown that adolescents without any mental illnesses have been known to have differing mood-related behavioral experiences based on pubertal development.

Adolescents who are in later stages of puberty have been shown to experience greater levels of irritability, rule-breaking, and even substance use in comparison to adolescents at earlier stages in puberty.^[2]

The timing of pubertal development has also been shown to impact adolescents expressions of mood, and behaviors.^[1] Some earlier maturing adolescents tend to report more feelings of loneliness, suicidal ideation, and even running away from home. They also report feeling more uncontrolled via behaviors such as destroying items or throwing tantrums. Having such early maturation is likely to make it more difficult to predict and adapt to the onset of these adaptations when they occur earlier than your peers.^[3][1]

• Females have been shown to be more negatively impacted by physiological pubertal change leading to increased shyness, worrying, depressed mood and self-consciousness as they progress through the stages.^[4]
• Peer and romantic relationships may also play a role in these negative emotional experiences, which females have been shown to be more sensitive to than males. ^[5][6]
• Adolescent girls experiencing early timing is correlated with higher rates of depressive disorders^[7][8], substance disorders^[9], eating disorders^[10], and co-morbid depression and substance disorders.
• Early maturation effects for girls demonstrate greater severity in contrast to boys, as indicated by numerous studies.^[11]

• Early maturation in boys is linked to increased internalizing and externalizing symptoms during early to mid adolescence.^[12]
• Data from the Oregon Adolescent Depression Project (OADP) found that early maturation was associated with lower self-esteem and increased substance use.^[8]

Recent developments in the field of neuroscience has discovered potential neurological-basis for the development of mood disorders specifically during pubertal changes. Although it is in its early stages and has no definitive findings yet.

Neuroimaging results have demonstrated the possibility of puberty related changes in the splenium of the corpus callosum representing a potential vulnerability for future onset of an affective or mood disorder for high-risk youth.^[13]

Puberty has been shown to have specific influences on the development of white matter in the brain during adolescence that potentially influences the connections between emotional-processing and emotion regulation areas of the brain, which would, therefore, affect their functioning.^[14]

An emerging pattern of delayed bedtimes and early rise time during adolescence results in less sleep than both adolescents and experts deem necessary.^[15] Delayed sleep phase occurs as the result of biological delay in the circadian rhythm and during puberty, where a slow buildup of sleep pressure accumulates to delay sleep phase.^[16] Adolescents dealing with school and social obligations see their sleep schedule fail to line up with their circadian rhythms. This coupled with daytime impairment can potentially meet the diagnostic criteria for Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS).^[17]

Some studies suggest that hormonal changes during puberty are more influential than physical changes in predicting certain mood and behavior patterns at adolescence. (Mood and Behavior at Adolescence: Evidence for Hormonal Factors*) In contrast, a large part of how impactful these hormones (estrogen and testosterone, specifically) are in behavior and mood has been found largely impacted by the social environment that adolescent inhabits. Although, women are still more negatively impacted by men due to findings that have greater sensitivities to these non-hormonal (especially social) factors in comparison to males. Overall, the study of these hormones may have some effect on mood but does not fully account for the manifestation of moods and behaviors, as further studies have shown. ^[18]

Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS) is diagnosed via three criteria on the DSM-V: misalignment of sleep, excessive sleepiness or insomnia, and significant daytime impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning.^[17]

Insomnia is characterized by difficulties initiating and maintaining sleep prevalent in 14-24% in adolescent populations.^[19] The DSM-V rates insomnia as a sleep related functional impairment of DSPS.^[20]

The overlap between DSPS and depression and insomnia accounts for functional impairment.^[17] Elevated rates of depression are seen in adolescents receiving less sleep than regular sleepers.^[21]

1. ↑ ^{1.0 1.1 1.2} Johnathan, Misaki N.; Biehl, Michael C.; Ge, Xiaojia (2009-03). "Trajectories of Depressed Mood From Early Adolescence to Young Adulthood: The Effects of Pubertal Timing and Adolescent Dating". Journal of Research on Adolescence 19 (1): 47–74. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00581.x. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2009.00581.x. 
2. ↑ Oldehinkel, Albertine J.; Verhulst, Frank C.; Ormel, Johan (2011-02-01). "Mental health problems during puberty: Tanner stage-related differences in specific symptoms. The TRAILS study". Journal of Adolescence 34 (1): 73–85. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.01.010. ISSN 0140-1971. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140197110000230. 
3. ↑ Kaltiala-Heino, Riittakerttu; Marttunen, Mauri; Rantanen, Päivi; Rimpelä, Matti (2003-09). "Early puberty is associated with mental health problems in middle adolescence". Social Science & Medicine (1982) 57 (6): 1055–1064. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(02)00480-x. ISSN 0277-9536. PMID 12878105. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12878105. 
4. ↑ Davison, Tanya E.; McCabe, Marita P. (2006-02). "Adolescent body image and psychosocial functioning". The Journal of Social Psychology 146 (1): 15–30. doi:10.3200/SOCP.146.1.15-30. ISSN 0022-4545. PMID 16480119. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16480119. 
5. ↑ Rudolph, K. D.; Hammen, C. (1999-05). "Age and gender as determinants of stress exposure, generation, and reactions in youngsters: a transactional perspective". Child Development 70 (3): 660–677. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00048. ISSN 0009-3920. PMID 10368914. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10368914. 
6. ↑ Rubin, Kenneth H.; Bukowski, William M.; Parker, Jeffrey G. (2007-06-01). "Peer Interactions, Relationships, and Groups". Handbook of Child Psychology (Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.). ISBN 0-470-14765-2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0310. 
7. ↑ Copeland, William; Shanahan, Lilly; Miller, Shari; Costello, E. Jane; Angold, Adrian; Maughan, Barbara (2010-10). "Outcomes of Early Pubertal Timing in Young Women: A Prospective Population-Based Study". American Journal of Psychiatry 167 (10): 1218–1225. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09081190. ISSN 0002-953X. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09081190. 
8. ↑ ^{8.0 8.1} GRABER, JULIA A.; LEWINSOHN, PETER M.; SEELEY, JOHN R.; BROOKS-GUNN, JEANNE (1997-12). "Is Psychopathology Associated With the Timing of Pubertal Development?". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 36 (12): 1768–1776. doi:10.1097/00004583-199712000-00026. ISSN 0890-8567. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199712000-00026. 
9. ↑ GRABER, JULIA A.; LEWINSOHN, PETER M.; SEELEY, JOHN R.; BROOKS-GUNN, JEANNE (1997-12). "Is Psychopathology Associated With the Timing of Pubertal Development?". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 36 (12): 1768–1776. doi:10.1097/00004583-199712000-00026. ISSN 0890-8567. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199712000-00026. 
10. ↑ Klump, Kelly L. (2013-07). "Puberty as a critical risk period for eating disorders: A review of human and animal studies". Hormones and Behavior 64 (2): 399–410. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.02.019. ISSN 0018-506X. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.02.019. 
11. ↑ Negriff, Sonya; Susman, Elizabeth J. (2011-09). "Pubertal Timing, Depression, and Externalizing Problems: A Framework, Review, and Examination of Gender Differences: PUBERTAL TIMING, DEPRESSION, AND EXTERNALIZING PROBLEMS". Journal of Research on Adolescence 21 (3): 717–746. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00708.x. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00708.x. 
12. ↑ Mendle, Jane; Ferrero, Joseph (2012-03). "Detrimental psychological outcomes associated with pubertal timing in adolescent boys". Developmental Review 32 (1): 49–66. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2011.11.001. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S027322971100044X. 
13. ↑ Van Meter, Anna; Moreira, Ana Lúcia R.; Youngstrom, Eric (2019-04-02). "Updated Meta-Analysis of Epidemiologic Studies of Pediatric Bipolar Disorder". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 80 (3). doi:10.4088/jcp.18r12180. ISSN 1555-2101. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/jcp.18r12180. 
14. ↑ Ladouceur, Cecile D. (2012). "Neural systems supporting cognitive-affective interactions in adolescence: the role of puberty and implications for affective disorders". Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience 6. doi:10.3389/fnint.2012.00065. ISSN 1662-5145. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2012.00065. 
15. ↑ Hysing, Mari; Pallesen, Ståle; Stormark, Kjell M.; Lundervold, Astri J.; Sivertsen, Børge (2013-04-24). "Sleep patterns and insomnia among adolescents: a population-based study". Journal of Sleep Research 22 (5): 549–556. doi:10.1111/jsr.12055. ISSN 0962-1105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12055. 
16. ↑ Jenni, Oskar G.; Achermann, Peter; Carskadon, Mary A. (2005-11). "Homeostatic Sleep Regulation in Adolescents". Sleep 28 (11): 1446–1454. doi:10.1093/sleep/28.11.1446. ISSN 1550-9109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sleep/28.11.1446. 
17. ↑ ^{17.0 17.1 17.2} Sivertsen, Børge; Pallesen, Ståle; Stormark, Kjell Morten; Bøe, Tormod; Lundervold, Astri J; Hysing, Mari (2013-12). "Delayed sleep phase syndrome in adolescents: prevalence and correlates in a large population based study". BMC Public Health 13 (1): 1163. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-1163. ISSN 1471-2458. PMID 24330358. PMC PMC3878844. http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-13-1163. 
18. ↑ Buchanan, Christy M.; Eccles, Jacquelynne S.; Becker, Jill B. (1992). "Are adolescents the victims of raging hormones? Evidence for activational effects of hormones on moods and behavior at adolescence.". Psychological Bulletin 111 (1): 62–107. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.111.1.62. ISSN 1939-1455. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.111.1.62. 
19. ↑ Hysing, Mari; Pallesen, Ståle; Stormark, Kjell M.; Lundervold, Astri J.; Sivertsen, Børge (2013-04-24). "Sleep patterns and insomnia among adolescents: a population-based study". Journal of Sleep Research 22 (5): 549–556. doi:10.1111/jsr.12055. ISSN 0962-1105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12055. 
20. ↑ "American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV)". SpringerReference (Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag). http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/springerreference_179660. 
21. ↑ Saxvig, Ingvild W.; Pallesen, Ståle; Wilhelmsen-Langeland, Ane; Molde, Helge; Bjorvatn, Bjørn (2012-02). "Prevalence and correlates of delayed sleep phase in high school students". Sleep Medicine 13 (2): 193–199. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2011.10.024. ISSN 1389-9457. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2011.10.024.