Typology

Typology ("study of types") refers to the Christian concept of Old Testament scenes and characters ("type") as foreshadowing those in the New Testament ("antitype") and was a commonly used device within the broader artform of Christian iconography. It was typically illustrated through the juxtaposition of imagery from the former with that of the latter (type and antitype), for example the depiction of David's fight with Goliath mirrored by Christ's resistance to Satan.

Typology was a popular and enduring form of religious illustration and was ubiquitous across Western art throughout the Middle Ages. It is an important part of Bible hermeneutics.

Levitical sacrifices as types of Jesus[edit]

Allusions and paronomasia of meaning[edit]

The narrative accounts of the passion, death and resurrection of Jesus in the The Gospels, and in particular the Epistle to the Hebrews, feature numerous direct and indirect quotes and allusions to prophetic types seen in the Old Testament sacrifices commanded in the books of Leviticus and Numbers. Typology includes the paronomasia of the meaning of the particular Hebrew words for the various sacrificial offerings: bulls, bullocks, lambs, goats, doves, pigeons, fine flour, bread, wine, oil, incense, and even the act of laying hands on the sacrifice.

The everlasting covenant of sacrifice perpetually continued in the Eucharist[edit]

Christians who believe that the Eucharist manifests the Real presence of the Lord Jesus Christ^[1], see in the Levitical sacrifices a foreshadowing of the banquet of real communion with the living substance of the body and blood of the Lord, as St. Paul so eloquently expressed in his First Epistle to the Corinthians^[2], and as explicitly pointed out by the writer to the Hebrews to those who doubt^[3]. The New Testament presents Jesus as the one true "apostle and High Priest of our confession"^[4]. He is seen as the one, unique, perpetually enduring flesh and blood sacrifice for sin "slain from the foundation of the world"^[5], "for without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness of sins"^[6]. The giving of a portion of the sacrifices from the altar of sacrifice to the worshipers to be eaten as a partaking of the sin offerings and peace offerings and votive offerings in the covenant of God is regarded by these Christians as a divinely revealed type fulfilled in the divinely revealed antitype of partaking of the bread of life in the communion of the Lord's Supper, the substance of the flesh and blood of Christ himself as promised by him in the sixth chapter of the Gospel of John^[7] as part of the New covenant of the Lord^[8]. The sacrifice instituted by Christ Jesus—"this is my body, this is my blood"—at his Last Supper in the Cenacle^[9], and permanently executed in a bloody manner in the universe of time and space "once and for all" on the Cross^[10], is seen by them as perpetuated in the timeless eternity of the everlasting "now" of God present through all ages in all places^[11] with the offering also of incense in worship by the nations^[12], so that all believers in him may "believe without seeing" and still be able to "see the Son"^[13], "behold the Lamb of God", and "partake of the divine nature", by eating his flesh and drinking his blood in an unbloody manner as divine food given to them by Jesus himself personally present under the appearance of bread and wine^[14]
—"The Jews therefore strove among themselves, saying, How can this man give us his flesh to eat? Then Jesus said unto them, Verily, verily, I say unto you, Except ye eat the flesh of the Son of man, and drink his blood, ye have no life in you. Whoso eateth my flesh, and drinketh my blood, hath eternal life; and I will raise him up at the last day. For my flesh is meat indeed, and my blood is drink indeed. He that eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood, dwelleth in me, and I in him. As the living Father hath sent me, and I live by the Father: so he that eateth me, even he shall live by me. This is the bread which came down from heaven: not as your fathers did eat manna, and are dead: he that eateth of this bread shall live for ever."
—"We have an altar, whereof they have no right to eat which serve the tabernacle"^[15].

Christians who believe that Jesus was speaking only metaphorically in a vividly symbolic figure of speech see the Old Testament bloody animal sacrifices offered with bread and wine in atonement for sin as a type of the antitype of their final fulfillment in the reality of his unique, "once and for all" bloody sacrifice of himself on the altar of his crucifixion on the Cross. The Eucharistic banquet of communion with him in the celebration of the Lord's Supper is firmly held by them to be a purely spiritual and symbolic memorial^[16] of his Last Supper with the Twelve Apostles and a representation of his sacrifice as an ordinance of the Christian Church^[17], and a witness of the New Covenant in his blood which completes, fulfills and does away with the ritual sacrifices of the Old Covenant of Moses and Israel. The sacrifices of praise and thanksgiving and good works in worship of God are still acceptable to Him^[18]. But there remains no longer any sacrifice for sin^[19]. If there was of necessity any need for a repetition of his sacrifice for sins, he would have had to suffer repeatedly since the foundation of the world^[20]—"but now once in the end of the world hath he appeared to put away sin by the sacrifice of himself. And as it is appointed unto men once to die, but after this the judgment: So Christ was once offered to bear the sins of many"—"Now where remission of these is, there is no more offering for sin"^[21]. For this reason they see no need for priests offering ritual sacrifices on an altar, which of themselves cannot take away sins^[22], and for this reason they see the doctrine of offering the sacrifice of Jesus repeatedly on an altar as the sin of falling away from Christ^[23] through a syncretistic compromise with pagan superstition. For these Christians the one true altar of sacrifice is Jesus Christ himself through whom we have direct access to God the Father.^[24]

The eternal covenant of Levitical sacrifice[edit]

The Torah of Moses declares that the Law of the Lord is an "everlasting covenant", which was first established in Genesis with Noah and the bow of the Lord in the clouds^[25], with Abraham and the mark of circumcision in flesh^[26], and with Moses and the descendants of Israel/Jacob with an everlasting priesthood^[27] having everlasting ordinances and statutes of obedience and an everlasting statute of atonement for sins^[28], and with David^[29] and his house (his descendants) and his throne, a covenant that the LORD commanded for "a thousand generations, an everlasting covenant"^[30].

Jeremiah declared the word of the Lord that he would "make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah"^[31], but nowhere does the prophet say that the covenant they broke was cancelled or "disannulled"^[32], only that a new covenant would be made. Even St. Paul stated that the Law of Moses was "established" by faith in Christ, not done away. "Do we then make void the law through faith? God forbid: yea, we establish the law."^[33] Jesus himself declared, "Think not that I am come to destroy the law, or the prophets: I am not come to destroy, but to fulfill. For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled. Whosoever therefore shall break one of these least commandments, and shall teach men so, he shall be called least in the kingdom of heaven: but whosoever shall do and teach them, the same shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven."^[34]

It is important to emphasize that the covenant God made with Israel at Sinai was binding only on the people of Israel. The Gentiles were not included.

Christian doctrine in the New Testament teaches that in the Person of the Incarnate Word of God, Jesus Christ, Lord and Savior and only-begotten Son of God the Father^[35], and in his blood sacrifice, all the sacrifices of the Levitical covenant, everlastingly established by an everlasting covenant for a thousand generations, everlastingly continue to be fulfilled in one unbroken eternal sacrifice without ceasing, forever, in the body of his one unique blood sacrifice of himself as High Priest and Head of the human race on the cross in full reparation for all the outrages committed against the dignity of God and for the redemption of the sins of the whole world^[36]. According to St. Paul, all who are united to him in baptism share in his eternal sacrifice to God^[37] in being offered up to God as living sacrifices^[38]. And in the communion of his body and the communion of his blood^[39] all those who believe in him and eat his flesh and drink his blood according to his promise have eternal life^[40], and according to St. Peter they partake of the divine nature^[41], in a fulfillment of the type of the eating from the altar of sacrifice under the Levitical covenant of Moses in the Tabernacle and the Temple of Jerusalem. The prayer of those who have been redeemed from the wrath to come on the ungodly^[42] by "pleading the blood of Jesus" contains the reality of offering up humble acknowledgement of the full satisfaction of the sacrifice of Christ in atonement for their souls, in the continuously ongoing and unbroken eternal fulfillment of an everlasting statute of atonement for sins^[43].

The types of the covenant of sacrifice fulfilled by the antitype of Christ[edit]

The Hebrew alphabet has no vowels. Every letter is a consonant. Many Hebrew words can be sounded in various ways by the speaker, allowing for latitude in interpretive readings by the speaker. This often presents opportunity to alter the meaning of the reading by changing the sound. Occasionally this can be done as a form of paronomasia as a form of humor, but more seriously to open up depths of meaning in the inspired text that traditional readings do not reveal. The ancient Hebrew text of the Torah which is read in the synagogue originally had no markings indicating how the words should be pronounced. The Hebrew scriptures normally read aloud with melodic intonation by cantors in the synagogue, who realized their obviously evident potential for clearly manifesting prophetic witness to the arrival of the Messiah in the person of Jesus of Nazareth, saw in the text opportunities to either support the claims of the Jewish Christians, that the Law and the Prophets and the Psalms testified to Jesus as the Anointed of God, the Prophet foretold by Moses, or to negate and even oppose them by the way the scriptures of Israel were read with intonated inflections that would not suggest such an interpretation. The leading scholars of Israel, distressed by the use of the Septuagint by the Nazarene sect as an aid in converting the people to belief in Jesus of Nazareth, after the destruction of the temple and the city of Jerusalem, determined to reject it in favor of only those scriptures written in Hebrew or Aramaic, which were written in Palestine before the time of Ezra, and which they believed supported the Torah of Moses. Then after the development of the Talmud, scholars known as Masoretes set themselves the task of standardizing the intonation of the Hebrew text of the Torah in particular, and more generally the whole of the more clearly defined Jewish canon of the Tanakh, so that the people in the synagogue would be spared intonations of the readings which sounded too clearly like prophecies of Jesus. For this reason various diacritical marks were added to the text of the scriptures indicating the approved traditional method of intonation and pronunciation in accordance with the traditional readings of Judaism. Also various corrections to the text were made, to remove or revise and correct all readings they considered to be corruptions of the text. The result is known today as the Masoretic Text. When the Torah, and in particular the book of Leviticus with its regulations of sacrificial offerings to God, is read with the consonantal text only, without the Masoretic diacritical marks, those established and accredited scholars who believe in Jesus, and who truly know the ancient Hebrew language, are easily able to see even more clearly portrayed the vividly evident typology of Christ Jesus in the scriptures of Israel. The connotations of the words denoting each of the sacrifices of Israel as types of the expected Messiah of Israel are rich with meanings pointing to the Sacrificial High Priestly Lordship of Jesus as the true antitype of their fulfillment.

bulls and bullocks[edit]

Leviticus 1:4-8.

"There was a division among them." John 7:43; Luke 12:51; Matthew 10:34. A bull. The Hebrew words פר, פרר, פרא can mean bull, bullock, divider, defeat, to break, frustrate, divide. Jesus is the bull of sacrifice, and a divider.
See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 6499 פר –divider, as dividing the hoof
• 6565 פרר –divide
• 6500 פרא –bear fruit, be fruitful
• 6501 פרא –wild ass, free man

dust, covering over blood[edit]

Genesis 2:7; 13:16; Leviticus 14:40-41; 17:13; Psalm 22:1, 15; 103:14; Ezekiel 24:7; Numbers 4:3-14

"thou dost lay me in the dust of death"–"My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?"–"For the bodies of those beasts, whose blood is brought into the sanctuary by the high priest for sin, are burned without the camp. Wherefore Jesus also, that he might sanctify the people with his own blood, suffered without the gate." Psalm 22:15; Psalm 22:1 / Matthew 27:46 and Mark 15:34; Hebrews 13:11-12a. The Hebrew word עפר can mean both dust, and the covering over of blood that was shed. See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 6083 עפר –dry earth, dust, covering over

Compare Romans 4:7; James 5:19-20; 1 Peter 4:8.
See Badger skins (Bible)^[44]

lamb, ewe lamb, sacrifice[edit]

Leviticus 1:11-12; 16:27; Exodus 29:38-42 30:10

"Behold the lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world." John 1:29b; 1 Peter 1:19; Acts 8:32-35. The Hebrew words כבש, כשב, כשבה can mean dominate(or), lamb, sheep (for sacrifice, for food), young ewe lamb (for sacrifice, for food). See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 3532 כבש –dominate, dominator
• 3775 כשב –lamb, sheep, for sacrifice, for food
• 3776 כשבה –young ewe lamb (for sacrifice, for food)

Compare Luke 2:33-35; 19:25-26.

goat, sin offering, scapegoat[edit]

Leviticus 3:12-15; 4:24-25; 16:8-27; Numbers 18:17

"Himself took our infirmities, and bare our sicknesses"–"What think ye? They answered and said, He is guilty of death. Then did they spit in his face and buffeted him; and others smote him with the palms of their hands" Matthew 8:17; 26:66-67. The Hebrew words שעיר, עז can mean buck, he-goat, he-goat for sin offering, food, sacrificial victim; the Hebrew word עזאזל means goat of departure, scapegoat (KJV). See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 8163 שעיר –buck, he-goat, he-goat for sin offering
• 5795 עז –food, sacrificial victim
• 5799 עזאזל –Azazel, goat of departure, scapegoat

Compare Matthew 27:3-10, 27:26.

dove, Jonah[edit]

Leviticus 1:14-17; 5:7-10; Jonah 1:17

"Jesus answered and said unto them, Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up.... But he spake of the temple of his body."–"Jesus, when he had cried again with a loud voice, yielded up the ghost. And, behold, the veil of the temple was rent in twain from the top to the bottom"–"For as Jonas was three days and three nights in the whale's belly; so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth." John 2:19-21; Matthew 27:50-51a; 12:40. The Hebrew words יונה, יין, תור can mean dove, pigeon, offerings, mourning, Jonah, banquet, grape, wine, seek out, search, turn, opportunity, adornment, estate, turtledove, a people, a bullock. See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 3123 יונה –dove, pigeon, offerings, mourning
• 3124 יונה –prophet Jonah
• 3196 יין –banquet, grape, wine
• 8446 תור –seek out, search
• 8447 תור –turn, opportunity, adornment
• 8448 תור –border, turn, estate
• 8449 תור –turtledove, a people
• 8450 תור –a bullock

Compare Luke 19:10; Deuteronomy 32:14; Genesis 49:11; Isaiah 63:1-5; 1 Timothy 2:9-10; Romans 13:17; 1 Peter 3:3-4; Ephesians 6:10-17

fine flour, chipped off, struck off, crushed, ground up, broken[edit]

Leviticus 2:1-3, 14-16; 16:12-13; 24:2; Numbers 8:4

"Then did they spit in his face, and buffeted him; and others smote him with the palms of their hands"–"And when he had scourged Jesus, he delivered him to be crucified"–"And when they had platted a crown of thorns, they put it upon his head.... And they spit upon him, and took the reed, and smote him on the head" Matthew 26:67; 27:26b, 29a, 30. The Hebrew word סלת means fine flour. See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 5560 סלת –fine flour, luxurious food, in king's household, flour (as chipped off) stricken off, ground up, broken.

Fine flour is like dust.
Compare Genesis 13:16; 28:14; Isaiah 53:3-6; 54:1-5; Galatians 3:16.

bread[edit]

Leviticus 2; Exodus 12:8

"I am the bread of life."–"I am the living bread which came down from heaven: if any man eat of this bread, he shall live for ever: and the bread that I will give is my flesh, which I will give for the life of the world." John 6:35a, 51. The Hebrew words לחם, בית לחם, מצה mean devour, to use as food, eat, place of bread, unleavened bread, sacrificial meal, bread, food, flesh, meat, in sacrifices, food (for man or beast). See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 3898 לחם –devour, fight, wage war
• 3898a לחם –fight, wage war
• 3898b לחם –to use as food, eat, dine
• 3899 לחם –bread, food, flesh, meat, in sacrifices, food (for man or beast)
• 1035 בית לחם –place of bread, house of bread, bet lechem (Bethlehem)
• 4682 מצה –unleavened bread or cake, sweetness, sweet, not bitter, not sour, sacrificial meal, peace offering

The Greek word φάτνη means manger. See Strong's Greek lexicon

• 5336 φάτνη –manger, feeding trough, stall, place of feeding

Compare 1 Corinthians 11:24; 10:17; Matthew 26:26; Mark 14:22; Luke 22:19; 24:30

wine, blood, blood of the grape[edit]

Deuteronomy 32:14 (32:7-14); Genesis 49:11; Exodus 29:39-42; Leviticus 17:11, 19 (Leviticus 1–20); 23:12-13; Psalm 80; Isaiah 65:8

"And he took the cup, and gave thanks, and gave it to them, saying, Drink ye all of it; For this is my blood of the new testament, which is shed for many for the remission of sins. But I say unto you, I will not drink henceforth of this fruit of the vine, until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom"–"I am the true vine, and my Father is the husbandman.... I am the vine, ye are the branches: He that abideth in me, and I in him, the same bringeth forth much fruit: for without me ye can do nothing." Matthew 26:27-29; John 15:1, 5. The Hebrew words תירוש, ייו, דם mean wine, banquet, grape, blood. See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 8492 תירוש –must, fresh or new wine
• 3196 ייו –wine, banquet, grape, grape wine
• 1818 דם –blood, by analogy, the juice of the grape

Compare John 2:10; Matthew 9:17; Acts 2:13; Hebrews 13:10; 2 Peter 1:3-4; Psalm 104:10-16.

oil, olive oil, beaten, crushed[edit]

Exodus 27:20; 29:1-2, 40; 35:14; Deuteronomy 24:20-21; Isaiah 49:6

Oil was light, a source of light. "I am the light of the world"–"Then cometh Jesus with them unto a place called Gethsemane"–"and his sweat was as it were great drops of blood falling down to the ground" John 9:5; Matthew 26:36a; Mark 14:32; Luke 22:44b. The Hebrew words שמן, כתית, זית mean oil, beaten, olive, light. See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 8081 שמן –liquid (as from the olive, often perfumed), richness, anointing, fruitful, oil, olive
• 3795 כתית –beaten (oil)
• 2132 זית –an olive (as yielding illuminating oil), the tree, the branch, or the fruit, the olive berry; source of wealth

The Greek word Γεθσημανή means olive press. See Strong's Greek lexicon

• 1068 Γεθσημανή –Gethsemane, oil press, olive press—a combination of גת and שמן. Gethsemane is an olive orchard on the Mount of Olives, a small place between the brook Kidron and the Mount of Olives near Jerusalem, a garden near the site of Jesus' agony.

See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 1660 גת –press, treading out (wine)-fat, olive press, wine press, for squeezing out liquid
• 8081 שמן –liquid, as oil from the olive

Compare Psalm 23:5; Matthew 25:1-13; Luke 22:30

incense, beaten small[edit]

Exodus 30:1-10; Leviticus 8:18-21; 16:11-28; Numbers 4:16

"And when they were come into the house, they saw the young child with Mary his mother, and fell down, and worshipped him: and when they had opened their treasures, they presented unto him gifts; gold, and frankincense, and myrrh"–"Then Pilate therefore took Jesus, and scourged him. And the soldiers platted a crown of thorns, and put it on his head, and they put on him a purple robe, And said, Hail, King of the Jews! and they smote him with their hands. Pilate therefore went forth again, and saith unto them, Behold, I bring him forth to you, that ye may know that I find no fault in him. Then came Jesus forth, wearing the crown of thorns, and the purple robe. And Pilate saith unto them, Behold the man! When the chief priests therefore and officers saw him, they cried out, Crucify him, crucify him. Pilate saith unto them, Take ye him, and crucify him: for I find no fault in him. The Jews answered him, We have a law, and by our law he ought to die, because he made himself the Son of God."–"And walk in love, as Christ also hath loved us, and hath given himself for us an offering and a sacrifice to God for a sweet-smelling savour." Matthew 2:11; John 19:1-7; Ephesians 5:2. The Hebrew words קטרת and דקק mean incense and crushed to powder. See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 7004 קטרת –a fumigation, sweet incense, perfume
• 1854 דקק –to crush, crumble, beat in pieces, bruise, stamp small
• 1855 דקק –crush, break to pieces

Compare Malachi 1:11; Psalm 141:1-2; John 12:3; 2 Corinthians 2:14-16; Philippians 4:18 (4:15-19); Hebrews 12:2-6; all of the Epistle to the Hebrews; Revelation 8:3.

Laying their hands on the sacrifice[edit]

Leviticus 4:3-12, 15-21; 8:14, 18, 22; 16:21-22; Numbers 19; Deuteronomy 21:1-9

"And they that had laid hold on Jesus led him away to Caiaphas the high priest, where the scribes and the elders were assembled."–"When Pilate saw that he could prevail nothing, but that rather a tumult was made, he took water, and washed his hands before the multitude, saying, I am innocent of the blood of this just person: see ye to it." Matthew 26:57; 27:24. The Hebrew word יד means hand and power; the word סמך means to lay (hands on). See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 3027 יד –hand, the open one, power, means, direction,
• 3028 יד –hand, power
• 5564 סמך –to lean, lay, rest, support, lay (hands on the sacrifice), take hold of

Compare Matthew 21:46 KJV; 26:50; Mark 14:46; Luke 20:19; John 7:30; see 1 Kings 18:44-46 and Mark 1:12 together; 1 Chronicles 28:19 KJV.

Passover, remembering, in remembrance, anamnesis and mneme[edit]

Exodus 13:3; 20:8; 28:29; Leviticus 2:16; 17:4; Deuteronomy 5:15

"This is my body which is given for you: this do in remembrance of me"–"And when he had given thanks, he brake it, and said, Take, eat: this is my body, which is broken for you: this do in remembrance of me. After the same manner also he took the cup, when he had supped, saying, This cup is the new testament in my blood: this do you, as oft as ye drink it, in remembrance of me"–"But in those sacrifices there is a remembrance again made of sins every year." Luke 22:19; 1 Corinthians 11:24-25; Hebrews 10:3. The Hebrew words זכר, זכרון mean mark, male, burn, commemoration, memorial, Zeker, most noteworthy male remembered, manchild, memorial, record. See Strong's Hebrew lexicon

• 2142 זכר –mark (this), to remember, mention, to be male, burn (incense), bring to remembrance
• 2143 זכר –a memento, recollection, commemoration, memorial, memory, remembrance, scent^[45]
• 2144 זכר –Zeker, an Israelite name
• 2145 זכר –remembered, most noteworthy male, him, man (child, -kind)
• 2146 זכרון –memento, memorable (thing, day, writing), memorial, record

The Greek words άναμιμνήσκω, άνάμνησις, μιμνήσκω, μνεία, μνήμα, μνημείον, μνήμη mean remembrance, commemoration, recollection, recital, memorial, memory, make (vividly) present, reliving (again)

• 363 άναμιμνήσκω –remind, recollect, mind (bring to mind, call to mind, put in mind of), remember, remembrance
• 364 άνάμνησις –recollection, remembrance (again), bring to the present, make (vividly) present, reliving (again)^[46]
• 3403 μιμνήσκω –remind, to recall to mind, be mindful, remember
• 3417 μνεία –recollection, recital, mention, remembrance
• 3418 μνήμα –memorial, monument (burial-place), grave, sepulcher, tomb
• 3419 μνημείον –a remembrance, cenotaph (place of interment), grave, sepulcher, tomb
• 3420 μνήμη –memory, remembrance, recall

Compare interlinear texts of

• Luke 22:19 and commentaries;
• 1 Corinthians 11:24 and commentaries;
• Hebrews 10:3 and commentaries

See also[edit]

Septuagint

Biblical Canon

Bible: The melodies of the Old Testament

Epistles of Ignatius: Witness to belief in transubstantiation in the early church

References[edit]

External links[edit]

Type and Antitype, by Wayne Blank (keyway.ca)

A Study of Biblical Types, by Wayne Jackson (christiancourier.com)

Types in Scripture (newadvent.org)

The 5 Levitical Offerings (bible-history.com)

The Five Offerings Of Leviticus 1–7, Chart And Outline, Raymond K. Campbell (biblecentre.org)

Leviticus and the True Sacrifice, by Peter Kwasniewski (catholicculture.org)

Anamnesis[edit]

Rabbi Lawrence A. Hoffman, Ph.D. Life and a Little Liturgy. 911: Remembering How We Remembered (lawrenceahoffman.com) —anamnesis and zakar making the past present.

The Lord's Supper and The Concept of Anamnesis, Ray Carlton Jones, Jr., Canton Lutheran Church, Canto, South Dakota - Word & World 6/4 (1986) (wordandworld.luthersem.edu) pdf

All This in Remembrance: The History & Revelation of Anamnesis in Platonic, Jewish & Christian Thought, by Folke T. Olafsson - Touchstone Magazine (touchstonemag.com)

Anamnesis (Christianity) - Wikipedia

Transubstantiation and the Real Presence, by Matt Slick - Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry (carm.org) —"the Roman Catholic view is a violation of Levitical law...It is a violation of the incarnation...the Lord's Supper is not a sacrifice of Christ". Matt Slick cites Leviticus 17:4 as a prohibition against eating blood in any form which was still in effect before the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus.

Anamnesis - Q+A (stpaulsparish.org) pdf Lutheran article —"Rev. Dr. Frank C. Senn has written, “This Greek word is practically untranslatable in English. 'Memorial', 'commemoration', 'remembrance' all suggest a recollection of the past, whereas ananamnesis means making present an object or person from the past. Sometimes the term 're-actualization' has been used to indicate the force of anamnesis.” "

The Institution of the Mass - Catholic Answers (catholic.com) —"[The Church] does not teach that the Mass is a re-crucifixion of Christ."

Anamnesis (arnesen.co.uk) —making the past present. Citing the expertise of C.F. Evans, Darwell Stone, Stephen Beale, D.R. Jones, Buchanan Grey, Dom Gregory, Westcott, Ignatius, Justin, Irenaeus, James Barr, Mercea Eliade, D.R. Davies, J.D. Crichton, George Guiver CR, Dom Ode Casel, Käsemann, John Jewel, Hooker, Colin Buchanan, and The Anglo-Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC).