List Of Most Massive Stars

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This is a list of the most massive stars that have been discovered, in solar mass units (M☉).

Uncertainties and caveats

Most of the masses listed below are contested and, being the subject of current research, remain under review and subject to constant revision of their masses and other characteristics. Indeed, many of the masses listed in the table below are inferred from theory, using difficult measurements of the stars' temperatures, composition, and absolute brightnesses. All the masses listed below are uncertain: Both the theory and the measurements are pushing the limits of current knowledge and technology. Both theories and measurements could be incorrect.

Artist's impression of disc of obscuring material around a massive star.

Complications with distance and obscuring clouds

Since massive stars are rare, astronomers must look very far from Earth to find them. All the listed stars are many thousands of light years away making their light especially faint, which makes measurements difficult. In addition to being far away, many stars of such extreme mass are surrounded by clouds of outflowing gas created by extremely powerful stellar winds. This outflow obscures the stars, making it difficult to determine the physical properties of the star needed to calculate its mass: The surrounding gas interferes with the already difficult-to-obtain measurements of stellar temperatures and brightnesses, which greatly complicates the issue of estimating internal chemical compositions and structures.[lower-alpha 1]

Eta Carinae is the bright spot hidden in the double-lobed dust cloud. It is the most massive star that has a Bayer designation. It was only discovered to be (at least) two stars in the past few decades.

Both the obscuring clouds and the great distances also make it difficult to judge whether the star is just a single supermassive object or, instead, a multiple star system. A number of the "stars" listed below may actually be two or more companions orbiting too closely for our telescopes to distinguish, each star possibly being massive in itself but not necessarily "supermassive" to either be on this list, or near the top of it. And certainly other combinations are possible – for example a supermassive star with one or more smaller companions or more than one giant star – but without being able to clearly see inside the surrounding cloud, it is difficult to know what kind of object is actually generating the bright point of light seen from the Earth.

More globally, statistics on stellar populations seem to indicate that the upper mass limit is in the 120-solar-mass range,[1] so any mass estimate above this range is suspect.

Rare reliable estimates

Eclipsing binary stars are the only stars whose masses are estimated with some confidence. However, note that almost all of the masses listed in the table below were inferred by indirect methods; only a few of the masses in the table were determined using eclipsing systems.

Amongst the most reliable listed masses are those for the eclipsing binaries NGC 3603-A1, WR 21a, and WR 20a. Masses for all three were obtained from orbital measurements.[lower-alpha 2] This involves measuring their radial velocities and also their light curves. The radial velocities only yield minimum values for the masses, depending on inclination, but light curves of eclipsing binaries provide the missing information: inclination of the orbit to our line of sight.

Relevance of stellar evolution

Some stars may once have been more massive than they are today. Many large stars have likely suffered significant mass loss – perhaps as much as several tens of solar masses. The lost mass is expected to have been expelled by superwinds: high velocity winds that are driven by the hot photosphere into interstellar space. The process forms an enlarged extended envelope around the star that interacts with the nearby interstellar medium and infuses the adjacent volume of space with elements heavier than hydrogen or helium.[lower-alpha 3]

There are also – or rather were – stars that might have appeared on the list but no longer exist as stars, or are supernova impostors; today we see only their debris.[lower-alpha 4] The masses of the precursor stars that fueled these destructive events can be estimated from the type of explosion and the energy released, but those masses are not listed here.

This list only concerns "living" stars – those which are still seen by Earth-based observers existing as active stars: Still engaged in interior nuclear fusion that generates heat and light. That is, the light now arriving at the Earth as images of the stars listed still shows them to internally generate new energy as of the time (in the distant past) that light now being received was emitted. The list specifically excludes both white dwarfs – former stars that are now seen to be "dead" but radiating residual heat – and black holes – fragmentary remains of exploded stars which have gravitationally collapsed, even though accretion disks surrounding those black holes might generate heat or light exterior to the star's remains (now inside the black hole), radiated by infalling matter (see § Black holes below).

Mass limits

There are two related theoretical limits on how massive a star can possibly be: The accretion mass limit and the Eddington mass limit.

  • The accretion limit is related to star formation: After about 120 M☉ have accreted in a protostar, the combined mass should have become hot enough for its heat to drive away any further incoming matter. In effect, the protostar reaches a temperature where it evaporates away material already collected as fast as it collects new material.
  • The Eddington limit is based on light pressure from the core of an already-formed star: As mass increases past ~150 M☉, the intensity of light radiated from a Population I star's core will become sufficient for the light-pressure pushing outward to exceed the gravitational force pulling inward, and the surface material of the star will be free to float away into space. Since their different compositions make them more transparent, Population II and Population III stars have higher and much higher mass limits, respectively.

Accretion limits

Astronomers have long hypothesized that as a protostar grows to a size beyond 120 M☉, something drastic must happen.[2] Although the limit can be stretched for very early Population III stars, and although the exact value is uncertain, if any stars still exist above 150~200 M☉ they would challenge current theories of stellar evolution.

Studying the Arches Cluster, which is currently the densest known cluster of stars in our galaxy, astronomers have confirmed that no stars in that cluster exceed about 150 M☉.

The R136 cluster is an unusually dense collection of young, hot, blue stars.

Rare ultramassive stars that exceed this limit – for example in the R136 star cluster – might be explained by an exceptional event hypothesized to have occurred: some of the pairs of massive stars in close orbit in young, unstable multiple-star systems must, on rare occasions, collide and merge when certain unusual circumstances hold that make a collision possible.[3]

Eddington mass limit

Main article: Astronomy:Eddington luminosity

Eddington's limit on stellar mass arises because of light-pressure: For a sufficiently massive star the outward pressure of radiant energy generated by nuclear fusion in the star's core exceeds the inward pull of its own gravity. The lowest mass for which this effect is active is the Eddington limit.

Stars of greater mass have a higher rate of core energy generation, and heavier stars' luminosities increase far out of proportion to the increase in their masses. The Eddington limit is the point beyond which a star ought to push itself apart, or at least shed enough mass to reduce its internal energy generation to a lower, sustainable rate. The actual limit-point mass depends on how opaque the gas in the star is, and metal-rich Population I stars have lower mass limits than metal-poor Population II stars. Before their demise, the hypothetical metal-free Population III stars would have had the highest allowed mass, somewhere around 300 M☉.

In theory, a more massive star could not hold itself together because of the mass loss resulting from the outflow of stellar material. In practice the theoretical Eddington Limit must be modified for high luminosity stars and the empirical Humphreys–Davidson limit is used instead.[4]

List of the most massive known stars

Legend
Wolf–Rayet star
Luminous blue variable/Slash star
O-type star
B-type star
A-type star

The following two lists show a few of the known stars, including the stars in open clusters, OB associations, and H II regions. Despite their high luminosity, many of them are nevertheless too distant to be observed with the naked eye. Stars that are at least sometimes visible to the unaided eye have their apparent magnitude (6.5 or brighter) highlighted with a sky blue background.

The first list gives stars that are estimated to be 60 M☉ or larger; the majority of which are shown. The second list includes some notable stars which are below 60 M☉ for the purpose of comparison. The method used to determine each star's mass is included to give an idea of the data's uncertainty; note that the mass of binary stars can be determined far more accurately. The masses listed below are the stars' current (evolved) mass, not their initial (formation) mass.

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Stars with 60 M☉ or greater
Name Location M (M☉) L (L☉) Teff (K) Spectral type Dist. (ly) mV Mass estimated by Link Refs
R136a1 R136 291±46 7,244,000+699,000
−1,078,000 		46,000+1,250
−2,375 		WN5h 163,000 12.28±0.01 evolution SIMBAD [5][6][7][8]
W49-2 W49 South 250±120 4,365,000+3,397,000
−1,910,000 		35,500+1,700
−1,600 		O2–3.5If* 36,200 evolution SIMBAD [9][10]
BAT99-98 NGC 2070 226 5,012,000 45,000 WN6 165,000 13.5 mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD
R136a2 R136 195±35 5,129,000+367,000
−342,000 		47,000+1,000
−625 		WN5h 163,000 12.80±0.01 evolution SIMBAD [5][6][7][8]
Melnick 42 R136 189 3,631,000 47,300 O2If* 163,000 12.86 mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [11][12]
R136a3 R136 184±40 5,012,000+236,000
−226,000 		50,000+2,500
−8,000 		WN5h 163,000 12.97±0.01 evolution SIMBAD [5][6][7][8]
W51-57 G49.5-0.4 160 1,820,000–4,786,000 42,700 O4V 20,000 evolution [13]
HD 15558 A IC 1805 ≥152±51 661,000 O5.5III(f) 24,400 7.87
combined 		binary SIMBAD [14][15]
W51-3 G49.5-0.4 148+105
−82 		1,349,000+626,000
−437,000–3,890,000+4,238,000
−2,028,000 		39,800 O3V–O8V 20,000 evolution SIMBAD [13]
Melnick 34 A R136 147±22 2,692,000+544,000
−453,000 		53,000±1,200 WN5h 163,000 13.10
combined 		mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [16][12]
VFTS 1022 R136 142.8+25.6
−25.2 		3,020,000+782,000
−621,000 		42,170±1,520 O3.5If*/WN7 164,000 13.44 evolution SIMBAD [17]
R136c R136 142.0+32.7
−24.7 		3,802,000+1,568,000
−1,110,000 		42,170±1,890 WN5h 163,000 12.86 evolution SIMBAD [17][12][lower-alpha 5]
LH 10-3209 A NGC 1763 140 2,312,000 50,900 O3III(f*) 160,000 12.73 evolution SIMBAD [18][19][20][lower-alpha 5]
VFTS 682 Runaway from R136 137.8+27.5
−15.9 		3,236,000+838,000
−666,000 		54,450±1,960 WN5h 164,000 16.08 evolution SIMBAD [17]
VFTS 506 NGC 2070 136.8±24.2 2,692,000 55,000 ON2V((n))((f*)) 164,000 13.31 evolution SIMBAD [21]
Melnick 34 B R136 136±20 2,344,000+474,000
−394,000 		53,000±1,200 WN5h 163,000 13.10
combined 		mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [16][12]
W51d G49.5-0.4 135 1,288,000–2,884,000 42,700 O3V–O4V 20,000 evolution [13]
NGC 3603-B HD 97950 132±13 2,884,000+504,000
−429,000 		42,000±2,000 WN6h 24,800 11.33 evolution SIMBAD [22][23]
HD 269810 NGC 2029 130 2,188,000 52,500 O2III(f*) 163,000 12.22 spectroscopy SIMBAD
W49-1 W49 cluster 1 130±30 1,905,000+786,000
−556,000 		44,700+2,100
−2,000 		O2–3.5If* 36,200 evolution SIMBAD [9]
R136a7 R136 127+15
−16 		2,291,000+280,000
−341,000 		54,000+2,000
−3,000 		O3III(f*) 163,000 13.97±0.01 evolution SIMBAD [7][12][8]
WR 42e Runaway from HD 97950 123 3,200,000 43,700 O3If*/WN6 25,000 14.529 evolution SIMBAD [24][25]
Sk -69° 249 A NGC 2074 119 4,130,000 38,900 O7If 160,000 12.02±0.21 evolution SIMBAD [26][27]
Sk -69° 212 NGC 2044 119 2,377,000 45,400 O5III(f) 160,000 12.416±0.0600 evolution SIMBAD
ST5-31 NGC 2074 119 2,168,000 50,700 O3If* 160,000 12.273±0.084 evolution SIMBAD [26][28]
R136a5 R136 116+6
−5 		2,089,000+149,000
−139,000 		48,000±750 O2I(n)f* 157,000 13.71±0.01 evolution SIMBAD [7][12][8]
MSP 183 Wd2 115 724,000 49,000±3,000 O3V((f)) 20,000 13.878±0.017 spectroscopy SIMBAD [29][30]
WR 24 Collinder 228 114 2,951,000 50,100 WN6ha-w 14,000 6.48 evolution SIMBAD [31][32]
NGC 3603-C1 HD 97950 113+11
−8 		2,239,000+392,000
−333,000 		44,000±2,000 WN6h 24,800 11.89
combined 		evolution SIMBAD [22][23][lower-alpha 5]
Arches-F9 Arches Cluster 111.3 2,239,000 36,800 WN8-9h 25,000 wind SIMBAD [33][34][35]
VFTS 545 R136 110.4+18.9
−16.6 		1,995,000+516,000
−410,000 		47,320±1,700 O2If*/WN5 164,000 13.40 evolution SIMBAD [17][12]
HSH95-36 R136 110±5 1,862,000+133,000
−124,000 		49,500+750
−1,000 		O2If* 163,000 14.41±0.01 evolution SIMBAD [7][12][8]
Cygnus OB2 #12 A Cygnus OB2 110 1,660,000 13,700 B3–4Ia+ 5,200 11.702
combined 		spectroscopy SIMBAD [36][37][lower-alpha 5]
Melnick 39 A R136 109±7 1,585,000+654,000
−463,000 		44,000±2,500 O3If*/WN6-A 160,000 13.0
combined 		binary SIMBAD [38]
R136a4 R136 108+6
−7 		1,905,000+90,000
−207,000 		50,000+500
−2,000 		O3V((f*))(n) 157,000 13.96±0.01 evolution SIMBAD [7][12][8]
VFTS 621 NGC 2070 107 1,380,000 50,100 O2V((f*))z 164,000 15.39 mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [11][12]
W49-3 W49 CC 105±20 1,514,000+528,000
−392,000 		40,700+5,000
−4,400 		O3–O7V 36,200 evolution SIMBAD [9][10]
R99 LH 49 103 3,162,000 28,000 Ofpe/WN9 164,000 11.520±0.049 mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [39][15]
Arches-F6 Arches Cluster 101.0 2,089,000+255,000
−227,000 		33,300±1,300 WN8-9ha 25,000 wind SIMBAD [33][40]
Arches-F1 Arches Cluster 100.9 1,995,000 33,700 WN8-9h 25,000 wind SIMBAD [33][34][35]
Peony Star near Galactic Center 100 2,951,000+1,217,000
−862,000 		25,100 WN10 26,000 evolution SIMBAD [41][10]
HD 93129 Aa Trumpler 14 100+25
−60 		1,413,000+172,000
−154,000 		52,000±3,000 O2If* 7,500 7.310±0.011
combined 		spectroscopy SIMBAD [42][15]
Mc30-1 A Mercer 30 99 3,236,000 32,200 O6–7.5If+ 40,000 evolution SIMBAD [43][lower-alpha 6][lower-alpha 5]
VFTS 1028 R136 99 1,230,000 47,300 O3III(f*) or O4–5V 164,000 13.82 mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [11]
WR 25 A Trumpler 16 98 2,399,000 50,100 WN6h-w 6,500 8.80
combined 		evolution SIMBAD [31][15][lower-alpha 5]
BI 253 Runaway from R136 97.6+22.2
−23.1 		1,175,000+410,000
−304,000 		54,000±1,500 O2V-III(n)((f*)) 164,000 13.669±0.062 evolution SIMBAD [17][44]
R136a8 R136 96±6 1,479,000+106,000
−99,000 		49,500±1,250 O2–3V 157,000 14.42±0.01 evolution SIMBAD
W49-15 W49 cluster 1 96±14 1,288,000+334,000
−265,000 		43,700±1,000 O2–3.5If* 36,200 evolution SIMBAD [9]
HM 1-6 HM 1 95 1,500,000 44,800 O5If 11,000 11.64 evolution SIMBAD
NGC 3603-42 HD 97950 95 946,000 46,500 O3III(f*) 25,000 12.86 evolution SIMBAD [18][23]
ST2-22 NGC 2044 94 1,247,000 51,300 O3V((f)) 160,000 14.3 evolution SIMBAD [26][45]
VFTS 562 NGC 2070 94 1,122,000 42,200 O4V 164,000 13.66 mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [11][12]
NGC 3603-A1a HD 97950 93.3±11.0 1,000,000 37,000 O3If*/WN6 24,800 11.18
combined 		eclipsing binary SIMBAD [46][22][23]
WR 21a A Runaway from Wd2 93.2+2.2
−1.9 		1,514,000+224,000
−195,000 		42,000 O2.5If*/WN6ha 26,100 12.661±0.03 combined eclipsing binary SIMBAD [47][48]
HD 303308 Trumpler 16 93 1,138,000 51,300 O3V 9,200 8.17 evolution SIMBAD [49][48]
VFTS 512 NGC 2070 93 1,096,000 47,300 O2V-III((f*)) 164,000 14.28 mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [11][12]
R136b R136 92±5 2,239,000+160,000
−149,000 		35,500±750 O4If 163,000 13.24±0.01 evolution SIMBAD [7][12][8]
VFTS 16 Runaway from R136 91.6+11.5
−10.5 		1,318,000+341,000
−271,000 		50,600+500
−590 		O2III-If* 164,000 13.546±0.010 evolution SIMBAD [17][12]
NGC 346-W1 NGC 346 91 1,500,000 43,400 O5.5If 200,000 12.57 evolution SIMBAD [26][50]
NGC 3603-A3 HD 97950 91 863,000 46,400 O3III(f*) 24,800 12.95 evolution SIMBAD [18][23]
η Carinae A Trumpler 16 90 4,000,000 9,470 (near the top of the wind) LBV 7,500 6.48±0.01
combined 		spectroscopy SIMBAD [51][52]
R146 Runaway from R136 88.4+16.9
−15.8 		1,950,000+505,000
−401,000 		53,090±1,910 WN5ha 164,000 13.116±0.0201 evolution SIMBAD [17][12]
WR 89 HM 1 87 2,138,000 39,800 WN8h 11,000 11.02±0.01 evolution SIMBAD [31][48]
Arches-F7 Arches Cluster 86.3 1,862,000+227,000
−203,000 		33,900±1,300 WN8-9ha 25,000 wind SIMBAD [33][40]
R147 Runaway from R136 85.6+15.2
−16.6 		2,291,000+593,000
−471,000 		47,320±1,700 WN5h 164,000 12.993±0.042 evolution SIMBAD [17][53]
Sk 80 NGC 346 85 1,500,000 38,900 O7If 200,000 12.31 evolution SIMBAD [26][54]
BAT99-92 B Tarantula Nebula 85 1,175,000 23,000 B1Ia 165,000 11.39±0.02 combined spectroscopy SIMBAD [55]
Sk -70° 91 BSDL 1830 84.09 851,000 48,849 ON2III 165,000 12.78 evolution SIMBAD [56][19][lower-alpha 7]
Sk -66° 172 LH 95 84.09 851,000 48,849 O2III(f*) 160,000 13.1 evolution SIMBAD [56][19]
Sk -68° 137 Runaway from R136 84.09 851,000 48,849 O2III(f*) 160,000 13.346±0.0101 evolution SIMBAD [56][19]
LH 64-16 NGC 2001 84.09 851,000 48849 ON2III(f*) 160,000 13.666±0.010 evolution SIMBAD [56][28]
Melnick 33Na A R136 83±19 1,413,000+725,000
−479,000 		50,000±2,500 OC2.5If* 163,000 13.79
combined 		evolution SIMBAD [57][58]
Melnick 39 B R136 83±5 1,000,000+413,000
−292,000 		48,000±2,500 O3If*/WN6-A 160,000 13.0
combined 		binary SIMBAD [38]
WR 20a A Wd2 82.2±4.7 603,000+139,000
−113,000 		43,000 WN6ha 20,000 13.5
combined 		eclipsing binary SIMBAD [59]
Arches-F2 A Arches Cluster 82±12 1,862,000+227,000
−203,000 		34,100+2,000
−1,000 		WN8–9h 25,000 eclipsing binary SIMBAD [60]
R139 A NGC 2070 81.6+7.5
−7.2 		1,585,000+235,000
−205,000 		34,000±1,100 O6.5I 163,000 11.94
combined 		evolution SIMBAD [61]
WR 20a B Wd2 81.4±4.7 537,000+124,000
−101,000 		41,840±250 WN6ha 20,000 13.5
combined 		eclipsing binary SIMBAD [59]
Tr27-27 Trumpler 27 81 1,247,000 37,200 O8III((f)) 3,900 13.31 evolution SIMBAD [49][48]
HSH95-46 R136 80+5
−6 		1,259,000+59,000
−162,000 		47,500+500
−2,500 		O2-3III(f*) 163,000 14.56±0.01 evolution SIMBAD [7][12]
Arches-F15 Arches Cluster 79.7 794,000+118,000
−102,000 		32,000±1,500 O6–7Ia+ 25,000 wind SIMBAD [33][40]
BI 237 BSDL 2527 79.66 661,000 51,269 O2V((f*)) 165,000 13.830±0.0431 spectroscopy SIMBAD [56][19][lower-alpha 8]
VFTS 1017 R136 79.0+17.8
−15.9 		1,622,000+420,000
−334,000 		50,120±1,800 O2If*/WN5 164,000 14.50 evolution SIMBAD [17][12]
VFTS 151 TLD1 79 1,072,000 42,200 O6.5II(f)p 164,000 mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [11][12]
VFTS 94 NGC 2060 79 955,000 42,200 O3.5Inf*p 164,000 14.161±0.0271 mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [11][19]
VFTS 1018 R136 79 832,000 42,200 O3III(f*) 163,000 14.34 mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [11]
LH 41-32 NGC 1910 78 946,000 48,200 O4III 160,000 13.086±0.0101 evolution SIMBAD [26][19]
Pismis 24-17 Pismis 24 78 851,000 O3.5III 5,900 11.84 spectroscopy SIMBAD [62][63]
LSS 4067 HM 1 77 794,000+118,000
−102,000 		40,000±2,000 O4If 11,000 11.26±0.07 evolution SIMBAD [64][65][66]
W51-2 G49.2-0.3 77+26
−22 		724000+167000
−136000–1288000+617000
−417000 		42,700+2,000
−1,900 		O3V–O5V 20,000 evolution SIMBAD [13]
R139 B NGC 2070 76.4+7.1
−6.7 		1,445,000+214,000
−187,000 		34,700±1,100 O7I 163,000 11.94
combined 		evolution SIMBAD [61]
NGC 346-W3 NGC 346 76 813,000+99,000
−88,000 		51,300 O2III(f*) 200,000 12.80±0.04 evolution SIMBAD [26][50][67]
BAT99-68 NGC 2044 76 1,000,000 45,000 O3If*/WN7 165,000 14.13 mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [39][19]
HD 93632 Collinder 228 76 946,000 45,400 O5III(f) 10,000 9.10 evolution SIMBAD [49][15]
AB1 DEM S10 75 1,175,000 79,000 WN3ha 197,000 15.24±0.02 spectroscopy SIMBAD [68][50][lower-alpha 9]
VFTS 457 NGC 2070 74.6+20.1
−9.2 		1,585,000+410,000
−326,000 		39,810±1,430 O3.5If*/WN7 164,000 13.74 evolution SIMBAD [17][12]
HD 38282 A Runaway from R136 74±4 2,754,000+336,000
−300,000 		50,000±2,000 WN5/6h 163,000 11.11±0.03
combined 		binary SIMBAD [69][48]
BAT99-6 A NGC 1747 74 794,000 45,000 O3If*/WN7 165,000 11.95 combined spectroscopy SIMBAD [55]
VFTS 608 NGC 2070 74 724,000 42,200 O4III(f) 164,000 14.22 mass-luminosity relation SIMBAD [11][12]
HSH95-31 R136 73±3 955,000+68,000
−64,000 		47,500+1,000
−750 		O2V((f*)) 163,000 14.35 evolution SIMBAD [7][12]
Mc30-11 Mercer 30 73 741,000 36,800 O5.5-6I-II 40,000 spectroscopy SIMBAD [43][lower-alpha 6]
Mc30-3 Mercer 30 73 676,000 39,300 O6If 40,000 spectroscopy SIMBAD [43][lower-alpha 6]
VFTS 599 NGC 2070 72.0+9.2
−7.4 		1,023,000+265,000
−210,000 		47,300+820
−500 		O3III(f*) 164,000 13.80 evolution SIMBAD [17][12]
NGC 2044-W35 NGC 2044 72 863,000 48,200 O4III 160,000 14.10 evolution SIMBAD [26][19]
VFTS 542 R136 71.4+16.3
−11.3 		1,445,000+374,000
−297,000 		44,670±2,010 O2If*/WN5 164,000 13.47 evolution SIMBAD [17][12]
VFTS 1021 R136 71.4+12.7
−9.2 		1,259,000+326,000
−259,000 		35,500±1,500 O4If+ 164,000 13.31 evolution SIMBAD [17]
ST2-1 NGC 2044 71 946,000 44,100 O5.5III 160,000 14.3 evolution SIMBAD [26][45]
NGC 3603-A1b HD 97950 70.4±9.3 1,000,000 42,000 O3If*/WN5 24,800 11.18
combined 		eclipsing binary SIMBAD [46][22][23]
Arches-F12 Arches Cluster 70.0 1,585,000 37,300 WN7–8h 25,000 wind SIMBAD [33][34][35]
HD 37974 NGC 2050 70 1,400,000 22,500 B0.5Ia+ 163,000 10.99±0.03 spectroscopy SIMBAD [70][48]
M33 X-7 B Triangulum Galaxy 70.0±6.9 525,000+92,000
−78,000 		34,000–36,000 O7III–O8III 2,700,000 18.70 binary SIMBAD [71][72]
QZ Carinae Aa1 Collinder 228 69.8±5 398,000 29,564±1,000 O9.7I 9,200 6.24 combined quaternary SIMBAD [73][74]
VFTS 125 NGC 2060 69.6+22.3
−17.2 		794,000+496,000
−281,000 		55,150±5,520 Ope 164,000 16.6 evolution SIMBAD [17][45]
HD 38282 B Runaway from R136 69±4 2,455,000+300,000
−267,000 		45,000±2,000 WN6/7h 163,000 11.11±0.03
combined 		binary SIMBAD [69][48]
HD 229059 Berkeley 87 69 1,038,000 26,300 B1Ia 3,000 8.70 evolution SIMBAD [49][15]
ST2-32 NGC 2044 69 863,000 45,400 O5III 160,000 13.903±0.0921 evolution SIMBAD [26][19]
ST2-3 NGC 2044 69 863,000 44,100 O5.5V 160,000 14.264±0.1241 evolution SIMBAD [26][19]
W28-23 NGC 2033 69 655,000 51,300 O3V 160,000 13.702±0.050 evolution SIMBAD [26][28]
HD 46150 NGC 2244 69 447,000+129,000
−100,000 		42,500+2,100
−2,000 		O5V((f))z 5,200 6.73 evolution SIMBAD [18][75][76]
HD 93403 A Carina OB1 68.5+12.3
−14.6 		1,047,000+49,000
−47,000 		39,300±1,100 O5.5I 10,400 8.27±0.74
combined 		evolution SIMBAD [77][48]
HSH95-47 R136 68±4 955,000+117,000
−64,000 		43,500+1,750
−1,000 		O2V((f*)) 163,000 14.72±0.01 evolution SIMBAD [7][12][8]
HSH95-48 R136 68±4 912,000+65,000
−80,000 		46,500+1,000
−1,500 		O2–3III(f*) 163,000 14.75±0.01 evolution SIMBAD [7][8]
HD 93130 Collinder 228 68 863,000 39,900 O7II(f) 10,000 8.04 evolution SIMBAD [49][15]
W51-61 G49.5-0.4 68 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O7.5V 20,000 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [13][10]
Sk -69° 200 NGC 2033 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". B1I 160,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [26][19]
Arches-F18 Arches Cluster Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O4–5Ia+ 25,000 windLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [33][34][35]
Arches-F4 Arches Cluster Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". WN7–8h 25,000 windLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [33][34][35]
Z15 Messier 81Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". B0.5 11,986,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [78]
HD 5980 B NGC 346 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". WN6−7 200,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		binaryLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [79][80]
Sk -67° 108 LMC Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O5III(f) 164,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [81]
HD 190429 A near Barnard 146 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O4If 7,800 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [82][15]
LH 31-1003 NGC 1858 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O6Ib(f) 160,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [26][19]
VFTS 169 NGC 2060 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O2.5V(n)((f*)) 164,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [17][19]
Pismis 24-1SW Pismis 24 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O4III 6,500 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [62][83]
HSH95-89 R136 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O4V 163,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [8]
HSH95-40 R136 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O3V 163,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [7][12]
HSH95-58 R136 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O2–3V 163,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [7][12][8]
VFTS 145 TLD1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O8fp 164,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". mass-luminosity relationLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [11][12]
VFTS 518 NGC 2070 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O3.5III(f*) 164,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". mass-luminosity relationLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [11][12]
W49-8 W49 CCLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O3–O7V 36,200 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [9][10]
BD+43° 3654 Runaway from Cygnus OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O6If+ 5,400 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [84][85]
Sk -70° 115 NGC 2122 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O6.5Ifc 164,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [81]
Sk -69° 25 NGC 1748 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O6V((f)) 160,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [26][19]
HSH95-50 R136 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O3–4V((f*)) 163,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [7][12][8]
W49-5 W49 cluster 1Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O3–O5V 36,200 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [9][10]
ST5-71 NGC 2074 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O5III 160,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [26][19]
VFTS 259 Tarantula Nebula Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O6Iaf 164,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [17][12]
Mc30-6a A Mercer 30 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ofpe/WN9 40,000 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [43][lower-alpha 6][lower-alpha 5]
AB9 DEM S80 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". WN3ha 197,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [68][50][lower-alpha 10]
LH 41-1017 NGC 1910 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". B1 160,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [26][19]
Brey 32 B NGC 1966 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O6.5V 165,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [26][48]
HD 93160 Trumpler 14 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O6III 8,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [49][15]
HSH95-35 R136 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O3V 163,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [7][12][8]
HD 229196 Cygnus OB9 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O5 5,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [84][63]
HD 5980 A NGC 346 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". WN6h 200,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		binaryLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [79][80]
WR 102hb Quintuplet cluster Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". WN9h 26,000 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [86][87]
VFTS 267 Tarantula Nebula Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O3.5III(f*) 164,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [81]
LH 41-18 NGC 1910 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O8.5V((f)) 160,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [26][19]
AB8 B NGC 602c Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O4V 197,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		binaryLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [79][88]
Mc30-9 A Mercer 30 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O6-7I-III 40,000 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [43][lower-alpha 6][lower-alpha 5]
ST5-25 NGC 2074 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O4V 160,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [26][28]
VFTS 422 NGC 2070 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O4III(f) 164,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". mass-luminosity relationLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [11][12]
Sk -67° 166 NGC 2014 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O4If+ 160,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [56][19]
Sk -65° 47 NGC 1923 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O4If 160,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [56][19]
Mc30-7 A Mercer 30 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". WN6 40,000 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [43][lower-alpha 6][lower-alpha 5]
BAT99-96 NGC 2070 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". WN8(h) 164,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [17]
Arches-F2 B Arches Cluster Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O5–6Ia+ 25,000 eclipsing binaryLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [60]
HSH95-55 R136 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". O2V((f*))z 163,000 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [7][12][8]

A few notable large stars with masses less than 60 M☉ are shown in the table below for the purpose of comparison, ending with the Sun, which is very close, but would otherwise be too small to be included in the list. At present, all the listed stars are naked-eye visible and relatively nearby.

Star name Location Mass
(M☉, Sun = 1)Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		Eff. temp.
(K)Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		Approx. dist.
(ly)Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		Appt. vis. mag.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Mass est.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". method Link Ref.
λ Cephei Runaway star from Cepheus OB3 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 51.4 36,000 3,100 5.05 spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [82][15]
τ Canis Majoris Aa NGC 2362 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 50 32,000 5,120 4.89 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [89][15]
θ Muscae Ab Centaurus OB1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 44 33,000 7,400 5.53
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [90][15]
θ2 Orionis A Orion OB1 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 39 34,900 1,500 5.02 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [91][92]
α Camelopardalis Runaway star from NGC 1502 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 37.6 29,000 6,000 4.29 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [93][15]
P Cygni IC 4996 of Cygnus OB1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 37 18,700 5,100 4.82 spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [94][15][lower-alpha 11]
ζ1 Scorpii NGC 6231 of Scorpius OB1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 36 - 53 17,200 8,210 4.705 spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [95][96]
ζ Orionis Aa Alnitak in Orion OB1 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 33 29,500 1,260 2.08 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [97]
θ1 Orionis C1 Trapezium Cluster of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 33 39,000 1,340 5.13
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [98][15]
κ Cassiopeiae Cassiopeia OB14 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 33 23,500 4,000 4.16 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [99][15]
μ Normae NGC 6169 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 33 28,000 3,260 4.91 spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [100][15]
η Carinae B Trumpler 16 of Carina Nebula Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 30 37,200 7,500 4.3
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		binaryLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [101][102]
γ2 Velorum B Vela OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 28.5 35,000 1,230 1.83
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [103][15]
Alnilam ε Orionis in Orion OB1 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 25,000 1,250 1.69 spectroscopy + interferometryLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [104][15]
Meissa A In Collinder 69 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 27.9 37,700 1,300 3.54 spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [100][105]
ξ Persei Menkib in California Nebula of Perseus OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 26.1 35,000 1,200 4.04 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [93][15]
ζ Puppis Naos in Vela R2 of Vela Molecular Ridge Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 40,000 1,080 2.25 empiricalLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [106][15][lower-alpha 12]
WR 79a NGC 6231 of Scorpius OB1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 24.4 35,000 5,600 5.77 spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [100][15]
Mintaka Aa1 In Orion OB1 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 24 29,500 1,200 2.5
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [107][108]
ι Orionis Aa1 Hatysa in NGC 1980 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 23.1 32,500 1,340 2.77
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD
κ Crucis Jewel Box Cluster of Centaurus OB1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 23 16,300 7,500 5.98 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [109][80]
WR 78 NGC 6231 of Scorpius OB1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 22 50,100 4,100 6.48 spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [31][32]
ο2 Canis Majoris Field star Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 21.4 15,500 2,800 3.043 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [100][15]
Rigel A In Orion OB1 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 21 12,100 860 0.13 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [110][15]
ζ Ophiuchi Upper Scorpius subgroup of Scorpius OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 20.2 34,000 370 2.569 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [93][15]
υ Orionis Orion OB1 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 20 33,400 2,900 4.618 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [111][112]
σ Orionis Aa Orion OB1 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 18 35,000 1,260 4.07
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [113][114]
μ Columbae Runaway star from Trapezium Cluster Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 16 33,000 1,300 5.18 spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [115][15]
Saiph In Orion OB1 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 15.5 26,500 650 2.09 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [116][15]
σ Cygni Cygnus OB4 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 15 10,800 3,260 4.233 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [117][118]
θ Carinae A IC 2602 of Scorpius OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 14.9 31,000 460 2.76
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [100][119]
θ2 Orionis B Orion OB1 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 14.8 29,300 1,500 6.38 spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [120]
ζ Persei Perseus OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 14.5 20,800 750 2.86 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [116][15]
σ Orionis B Orion OB1 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 14 31,000 1,260 4.07
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [113][114]
β Canis Majoris Mirzam in Local Bubble of Scorpius OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 13.5 23,200 490 1.985 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [121][122]
ε Persei A α Persei Cluster Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 13.5 26,500 640 2.88
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD
ι Orionis Aa2 NGC 1980 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 13.1 27,000 1,340 2.77
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [123][124]
δ Scorpii A Dschubba in Upper Scorpius subgroup of Scorpius OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 13 27,400 440 2.307
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [125][126]
σ Orionis Ab Orion OB1 of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 13 29,000 1,260 4.07
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [113][114]
θ Muscae Aa WR 48 in Centaurus OB1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 11.5 83,000 7,400 5.53
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [127][15]
γ2 Velorum A WR 11 in Vela OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 9 57,000 1,230 1.83
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [103][15]
ρ Ophiuchi A ρ Ophiuchi cloud complex of Scorpius OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 8.7 22,000 360 4.63
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [100][15]
Bellatrix In Bellatrix Cluster of Orion complex Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 7.7 21,800 250 1.64 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [128][15]
Antares B Loop I Bubble of Scorpius OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 7.2 18,500 550 5.5 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [129][105]
λ Tauri A Pisces-Eridanus stellar stream Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 7.18 18,700 480 3.47
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [130][131]
δ Persei α Persei Cluster Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 7 14,900 520 3.01 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [100][119]
ψ Persei α Persei Cluster Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 6.2 16,000 580 4.31 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [100][15]
α Pavonis Aa Peacock in Tucana-Horologium association Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 5.91 17,700 180 1.94 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [132][124]
Alcyone In Pleiades Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 5.9 12,300 440 2.87
combined Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 		evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [133][15]
γ Canis Majoris Muliphein in Collinder 121 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 5.6 13,600 440 4.1 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [100][134]
η Canis Majoris Aludra in Collinder 121 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 5.5 or 9.5 15,000 2,000 2.45 SED modelling / spectroscopyLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [135][15]
ο Velorum IC 2391 of Scorpius OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 5.5 16,200 490 3.6 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [136][119]
ο Aquarii Pisces-Eridanus stellar stream Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 4.2 13,500 440 4.71 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [137][138]
ν Fornacis Pisces-Eridanus stellar stream Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 3.65 13,400 370 4.69 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [139][15]
φ Eridani Tucana-Horologium association Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 3.55 13,700 150 3.55 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [132][140]
η Chamaeleontis η Chamaeleontis moving group of Scorpius OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 3.2 12,500 310 5.453 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [141][80]
ε Chamaeleontis ε Chamaeleontis moving group of Scorpius OB2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 2.87 10,900 360 4.91 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [142][119]
τ1 Aquarii Pisces-Eridanus stellar stream Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 2.68 10,600 320 5.66 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [143][144]
ε Hydri Tucana-Horologium association Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 2.64 11,000 150 4.12 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [143][145]
β1 Tucanae Tucana-Horologium association Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 2.5 10,600 140 4.37 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [100][105]
Sirius A ~11 th nearest star Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 2.06 9,850 8.6 −1.46 evolutionLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". SIMBAD [146][147]
Sun Solar System Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". 1 5,772 0.0000158 −26.744 standardLua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". [148][149][150]
  1. ↑ For methods that involve modelling the a star's internal dynamics, different chemical composition indicates a different estimate for stellar mass for any one measured temperature and / or brightness.
  2. ↑ For a binary star, it is possible to measure the individual masses of the two stars by studying their orbital motions, using Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
  3. ↑ The superwinds from massive stars are similar to the superwinds generated by asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars – red giants – that form planetary nebulae. These stars' later remnants become the (technically non-stellar) white dwarf cores of planetary nebulae.
  4. ↑ For examples of stellar debris see hypernovae and supernova remnant.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 This is a binary system but the secondary is much less massive than the primary.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Mercer 30 is an open cluster in Dragonfish Nebula.
  7. ↑ BSDL 1830 is a star cluster in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  8. ↑ BSDL 2527 is a star cluster in Large Magellanic Cloud.
  9. ↑ DEM S10 is a H II region in Small Magellanic Cloud.
  10. ↑ DEM S80 is a H II region in Small Magellanic Cloud.
  11. ↑ IC 4996 is an open cluster in Cygnus OB1.
  12. ↑ Vela R2 is a OB association in Vela Molecular Ridge.

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Black holes

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Black holes are the end point of the evolution of massive stars.[upper-alpha 1] Technically they are not stars, as they no longer generate heat and light via nuclear fusion in their cores. Some black holes may have cosmological origins, and would then never have been stars. This is thought to be especially likely in the cases of the most massive black holes.

See also

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Footnotes

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  1. ↑ A very few low / no metallicity stars (populations II and III) between 140–250 M☉ end their lives by a type II-P supernova explosion, which is powerful enough to blow (almost) all matter away from the vicinity of the star, so that not enough material remains to create either a black hole, or a neutron star, or a white dwarf: There is no central remnant; all that remains is an expanding shell of shocked gas from the SN explosion colliding with previously quiescent material ejected before the core collapse explosion.

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References

  1. ↑ van Marle, A.J.; Owocki, S.P.; Shaviv, N.J. (March 2008). "Continuum-driven winds from super-Eddington stars: A tale of two limits". First Stars III. 990. Santa Fe, NM. pp. 250–253. doi:10.1063/1.2905555. Bibcode: 2008AIPC..990..250V. 
  2. ↑ Maeder, A.; Georgy, C.; Meynet, G.; Ekström, S. (March 2012). "On the Eddington limit and Wolf-Rayet stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics 539: A110. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118328. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2012A&A...539A.110M. 
  3. ↑ Banerjee, Sambaran; Kroupa, Pavel; Oh, Seungkyung (21 October 2012). "The emergence of super-canonical stars in R136-type starburst clusters: Super-canonical stars in R136" (in en). Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 426 (2): 1416–1426. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21672.x. ISSN 0035-8711. Bibcode: 2012MNRAS.426.1416B. 
  4. ↑ Ulmer, Andrew; Fitzpatrick, Edward L. (September 1998). "Revisiting the modified Eddington limit for massive stars" (in en). The Astrophysical Journal 504 (1): 200–206. doi:10.1086/306048. ISSN 0004-637X. Bibcode: 1998ApJ...504..200U. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Keszthelyi, Z.; Brands, S. A.; de Koter, A.; Langer, N.; Puls, J. (2025-06-18). "Evolutionary models for the Very Massive Stars in the R136 cluster of 30 Doradus in the Large Magellanic Cloud". Astronomy and Astrophysics 700: A186. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202554758. Bibcode: 2025A&A...700A.186K. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Crowther, Paul A.; Caballero-Nieves, Saida M.; Schneider, Fabian R.N.; Simón-Díaz, Sergio; Brands, Sarah A.; de Koter, Alex; Gräfener, Götz et al. (2020-12-01). "The R136 star cluster dissected with Hubble Space Telescope / STIS - II. Physical properties of the most massive stars in R136". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 499 (2): 1918–1936. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2801. ISSN 0035-8711. Bibcode: 2020MNRAS.499.1918B. 
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 Brands, S.; de Koter, A.; Bestenlehner, J.; Crowther, P.; Sundqvist, J.; Puls, J. et al. (7 April 2022). "The R136 star cluster dissected with Hubble Space Telescope/STIS. III. The most massive stars and their clumped winds". Astronomy & Astrophysics 663: A36. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142742. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2022A&A...663A..36B. 
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named crowther2016
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 Wu, Shi-Wei; Bik, Arjan; Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Henning, Thomas; Pasquali, Anna; Brandner, Wolfgang; Stolte, Andrea (May 2016). "The massive stellar population of W49: A spectroscopic survey". Astronomy & Astrophysics 589: A16. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527823. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2016A&A...589A..16W. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Cutri, Roc M.; Skrutskie, Michael F.; van Dyk, Schuyler D.; Beichman, Charles A.; Carpenter, John M.; Chester, Thomas et al. (2003). VizieR Online Data Catalog: 2MASS All-Sky Catalog of Point Sources (Cutri+ 2003) (Report). Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2246. CDS/ADC. p. II/246. http://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR?-source=II/246. 
  11. ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 Bestenlehner, J.M.; Gräfener, G.; Vink, J.S.; Najarro, F.; de Koter, A.; Sana, H. et al. (October 2014). "The VLT-FLAMES Tarantula Survey: XVII. Physical and wind properties of massive stars at the top of the main sequence". Astronomy & Astrophysics 570: A38. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423643. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2014A&A...570A..38B. 
  12. ↑ 12.00 12.01 12.02 12.03 12.04 12.05 12.06 12.07 12.08 12.09 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 12.16 12.17 12.18 12.19 12.20 12.21 12.22 12.23 12.24 12.25 12.26 12.27 12.28 12.29 12.30 12.31 12.32 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Doran2013
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Bik, A.; Henning, Th.; Wu, S.-W.; Zhang, M.; Brandner, W.; Pasquali, A.; Stolte, A. (April 2019). "Near-infrared spectroscopy of the massive stellar population of W51: evidence for multi-seeded star formation". Astronomy & Astrophysics 624: A63. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201935061. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2019A&A...624A..63B. 
  14. ↑ De Becker, M.; Rauw, G.; Manfroid, J.; Eenens, P. (September 2006). "Early-type stars in the young open cluster IC 1805: II. The probably single stars HD 15570 and HD 15629, and the massive binary/triple system HD 15558". Astronomy & Astrophysics 456 (3): 1121–1130. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065300. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2006A&A...456.1121D. 
  15. ↑ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 15.16 15.17 15.18 15.19 15.20 15.21 15.22 15.23 15.24 15.25 15.26 15.27 15.28 15.29 15.30 15.31 15.32 15.33 15.34 15.35 Ducati, J.R. (2002). VizieR Online Data Catalog: Catalogue of Stellar Photometry in Johnson's 11-color system (Report). Collection of Electronic Catalogues. 2237. CDS/ADC. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Tehrani, Katie A.; Crowther, Paul A.; Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Littlefair, Stuart P.; Pollock, A.M.T.; Parker, Richard J.; Schnurr, Olivier (1 April 2019). "Weighing Melnick 34: the most massive binary system known" (in en). Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 484 (2): 2692–2710. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz147. ISSN 0035-8711. Bibcode: 2019MNRAS.484.2692T. 
  17. ↑ 17.00 17.01 17.02 17.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 17.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 17.11 17.12 17.13 17.14 17.15 17.16 Schneider, F.R.N.; Sana, H.; Evans, C.J.; Bestenlehner, J.M.; Castro, N.; Fossati, L. et al. (5 January 2018). "An excess of massive stars in the local 30 Doradus starburst" (in en). Science 359 (6371): 69–71. doi:10.1126/science.aan0106. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 29302009. Bibcode: 2018Sci...359...69S. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Walborn, Nolan R.; Howarth, Ian D.; Lennon, Daniel J.; Massey, Philip; Oey, M. S.; Moffat, Anthony F. J. et al. (May 2002). "A New Spectral Classification System for the Earliest O Stars: Definition of Type O2". The Astronomical Journal 123 (5): 2754–2771. doi:10.1086/339831. ISSN 0004-6256. Bibcode: 2002AJ....123.2754W. 
  19. ↑ 19.00 19.01 19.02 19.03 19.04 19.05 19.06 19.07 19.08 19.09 19.10 19.11 19.12 19.13 19.14 19.15 19.16 19.17 19.18 19.19 Bonanos, A.Z.; Massa, D.L.; Sewilo, M.; Lennon, D.J.; Panagia, N.; Smith, L.J. et al. (1 October 2009). "Spitzer SAGE Infrared Photometry of Massive Stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud". The Astronomical Journal 138 (4): 1003–1021. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/138/4/1003. ISSN 0004-6256. Bibcode: 2009AJ....138.1003B. 
  20. ↑ Walborn, Nolan R.; Drissen, Laurent; Parker, Joel Wm.; Saha, Abhijit; MacKenty, John W.; White, Richard L. (October 1999). "[ITAL]HST[/ITAL]/FOS Spatially Resolved Spectral Classification of Compact OB Groups in the Large Magellanic Cloud". The Astronomical Journal 118 (4): 1684–1699. doi:10.1086/301038. 
  21. ↑ Sabín-Sanjulián, C.; Simón-Díaz, S.; Herrero, A.; Puls, J.; Schneider, F. R. N.; Evans, C. J.; Garcia, M.; Najarro, F. et al. (May 2017). "The VLT-FLAMES Tarantula Survey: XXVI. Properties of the O-dwarf population in 30 Doradus". Astronomy & Astrophysics 601: A79. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629210. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 Crowther, Paul A.; Schnurr, Olivier; Hirschi, Raphael; Yusof, Norhasliza; Parker, Richard J.; Goodwin, Simon P.; Kassim, Hasan Abu (21 October 2010). "The R136 star cluster hosts several stars whose individual masses greatly exceed the accepted 150 M⊙ stellar mass limit" (in en). Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 408 (2): 731–751. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17167.x. ISSN 0035-8711. Bibcode: 2010MNRAS.408..731C. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 Melena, Nicholas W.; Massey, Philip; Morrell, Nidia I.; Zangari, Amanda M. (1 March 2008). "The massive star content of NGC 3603". The Astronomical Journal 135 (3): 878–891. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/135/3/878. ISSN 0004-6256. Bibcode: 2008AJ....135..878M. 
  24. ↑ Roman-Lopes, A.; Franco, G.A.P.; Sanmartim, D. (26 May 2016). "SOAR Optical and Near-infrared Spectroscopic Survey of Newly Discovered Massive Stars in the Periphery of Galactic Massive Star Clusters I-NGC 3603". The Astrophysical Journal 823 (2): 96. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/823/2/96. ISSN 1538-4357. Bibcode: 2016ApJ...823...96R. 
  25. ↑ Roman-Lopes, A. (1 November 2012). "A Galactic O2 If*/WN6 star possibly ejected from its birthplace in NGC 3603". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters 427 (1): L65–L69. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2012.01346.x. Bibcode: 2012MNRAS.427L..65R. 
  26. ↑ 26.00 26.01 26.02 26.03 26.04 26.05 26.06 26.07 26.08 26.09 26.10 26.11 26.12 26.13 26.14 26.15 26.16 26.17 26.18 26.19 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Massey2000
  27. ↑ Fabricius, C.; Høg, E.; Makarov, V.V.; Mason, B.D.; Wycoff, G.L.; Urban, S.E. (March 2002). "The Tycho double star catalogue". Astronomy & Astrophysics 384 (1): 180–189. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20011822. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2002A&A...384..180F. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Zaritsky, Dennis; Harris, Jason; Thompson, Ian B.; Grebel, Eva K. (October 2004). "The Magellanic Clouds Photometric Survey: The Large Magellanic Cloud Stellar Catalog and Extinction Map" (in en). The Astronomical Journal 128 (4): 1606–1614. doi:10.1086/423910. ISSN 0004-6256. Bibcode: 2004AJ....128.1606Z. 
  29. ↑ Drew, J.E.; Herrero, A.; Mohr-Smith, M.; Monguió, M.; Wright, N.J.; Kupfer, T.; Napiwotzki, R. (21 October 2018). "Massive stars in the hinterland of the young cluster, Westerlund 2" (in en). Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 480 (2): 2109–2124. doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1905. ISSN 0035-8711. Bibcode: 2018MNRAS.480.2109D. 
  30. ↑ Vargas Álvarez, Carlos A.; Kobulnicky, Henry A.; Bradley, David R.; Kannappan, Sheila J.; Norris, Mark A.; Cool, Richard J.; Miller, Brendan P. (25 March 2013). "The distance to the massive galactic cluster Westerlund 2 from a spectroscopic and HST photometric study". The Astronomical Journal 145 (5): 125. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/145/5/125. ISSN 0004-6256. Bibcode: 2013AJ....145..125V. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Hamann, W.-R.; Gräfener, G.; Liermann, A.; Hainich, R.; Sander, A.a.C.; Shenar, T. et al. (1 May 2019). "The galactic WN stars revisited - impact of Gaia distances on fundamental stellar parameters" (in en). Astronomy & Astrophysics 625: A57. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834850. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2019A&A...625A..57H. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Samus, N.N.; Kazarovets, E.V.; Durlevich, O.V.; Kireeva, N.N.; Pastukhova, E.N. (January 2009). "VizieR Online Data Catalog: General Catalogue of Variable Stars (Samus+ 2007-2013)". VizieR On-line Data Catalog: B/GCVS. Originally Published in: 2017ARep...61...80S; 2017AZh....94...87S 1. Bibcode: 2009yCat....102025S. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 33.6 33.7 Gräfener, G.; Vink, J.S.; de Koter, A.; Langer, N. (November 2011). "The Eddington factor as the key to understand the winds of the most massive stars: Evidence for a Γ-dependence of Wolf-Rayet type mass loss". Astronomy & Astrophysics 535: A56. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201116701. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2011A&A...535A..56G. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 Figer, Donald F.; Najarro, Francisco; Gilmore, Diane; Morris, Mark; Kim, Sungsoo S.; Serabyn, Eugene et al. (10 December 2002). "Massive Stars in the Arches Cluster" (in en). The Astrophysical Journal 581 (1): 258–275. doi:10.1086/344154. ISSN 0004-637X. Bibcode: 2002ApJ...581..258F. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 Clark, J. S.; Lohr, M. E.; Najarro, F.; Dong, H.; Martins, F. (September 2018). "The Arches cluster revisited: I. Data presentation and stellar census". Astronomy & Astrophysics 617: A65. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832826. Bibcode: 2018A&A...617A..65C. 
  36. ↑ Oskinova, L. M.; Huenemoerder, D. P.; Hamann, W. -R.; Shenar, T.; Sander, A. A. C.; Ignace, R.; Todt, H.; Hainich, R. (2017). "On the Binary Nature of Massive Blue Hypergiants: High-resolution X-Ray Spectroscopy Suggests That Cyg OB2 12 is a Colliding Wind Binary". The Astrophysical Journal 845 (1): 39. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa7e79. Bibcode: 2017ApJ...845...39O. 
  37. ↑ Laur, Jaan; Kolka, Indrek; Eenmäe, Tõnis; Tuvikene, Taavi; Leedjärv, Laurits (February 2017). "Variability survey of brightest stars in selected OB associations". Astronomy & Astrophysics 598: A108. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629395. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2017A&A...598A.108L. 
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  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named hainich
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  111. ↑ Smith, M.A. (August 1981). "Nonradial pulsations in the zero-age main-sequence star upsilon Orionis (O9.5V)" (in en). The Astrophysical Journal 248: 214–221. doi:10.1086/159145. ISSN 0004-637X. Bibcode: 1981ApJ...248..214S. 
  112. ↑ Nieva, M.-F. (2013). "Temperature, gravity, and bolometric correction scales for non-supergiant OB stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics 550: A26. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219677. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2013A&A...550A..26N. 
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  114. ↑ 114.0 114.1 114.2 Mason, Brian D.; Wycoff, Gary L.; Hartkopf, William I.; Douglass, Geoffrey G.; Worley, Charles E. (2001). "The 2001 US Naval Observatory Double Star CD-ROM. I. The Washington Double Star Catalog". The Astronomical Journal 122 (6): 3466. doi:10.1086/323920. Bibcode: 2001AJ....122.3466M. 
  115. ↑ Martins, F.; Schaerer, D.; Hillier, D. J.; Meynadier, F.; Heydari-Malayeri, M.; Walborn, N. R. (2005). "O stars with weak winds: the Galactic case". Astronomy & Astrophysics 441 (2): 735–762. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20052927. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2005A&A...441..735M. 
  116. ↑ 116.0 116.1 Hohle, M.M.; Neuhäuser, R.; Schutz, B.F. (April 2010). "Masses and luminosities of O- and B-type stars and red supergiants". Astronomische Nachrichten 331 (4): 349. doi:10.1002/asna.200911355. Bibcode: 2010AN....331..349H. 
  117. ↑ Przybilla, N.; Firnstein, M.; Nieva, M.F.; Meynet, G.; Maeder, A. (2010). "Mixing of CNO-cycled matter in massive stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics 517: A38. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014164. Bibcode: 2010A&A...517A..38P. 
  118. ↑ Firnstein, M.; Przybilla, N. (2012). "Quantitative spectroscopy of Galactic BA-type supergiants. I. Atmospheric parameters". Astronomy & Astrophysics 543: A80. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219034. Bibcode: 2012A&A...543A..80F. 
  119. ↑ 119.0 119.1 119.2 119.3 Johnson, H.L.; Iriarte, B.; Mitchell, R.I.; Wisniewskj, W.Z. (1966). "UBVRIJKL photometry of the bright stars". Communications of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory 4 (99): 99. Bibcode: 1966CoLPL...4...99J. 
  120. ↑ Nieva, María-Fernanda; Przybilla, Norbert (2014). "Fundamental properties of nearby single early B-type stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics 566: A7. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423373. Bibcode: 2014A&A...566A...7N. 
  121. ↑ Mazumdar, A.; Briquet, M.; Desmet, M.; Aerts, C. (November 2006). "An asteroseismic study of the β Cephei star β Canis Majoris". Astronomy and Astrophysics 459 (2): 589–596. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20064980. Bibcode: 2006A&A...459..589M. 
  122. ↑ Cousins, A.W.J. (1972). "UBV Photometry of Some Very Bright Stars". Monthly Notes of the Astronomical Society of Southern Africa 31: 69. Bibcode: 1972MNSSA..31...69C. 
  123. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named marchenko
  124. ↑ 124.0 124.1 Nicolet, B. (1978). "Photoelectric photometric Catalogue of homogeneous measurements in the UBV System". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series 34: 1–49. Bibcode: 1978A&AS...34....1N. 
  125. ↑ Miroshnichenko, A.S.; Pasechnik, A.V.; Manset, N.; Carciofi, A.C.; Rivinius, Th.; Štefl, S. et al. (2013). "The 2011 periastron passage of the Be binary δ Scorpii". The Astrophysical Journal 766 (2): 119. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/766/2/119. Bibcode: 2013ApJ...766..119M. 
  126. ↑ Gutierrez-Moreno, Adelina; Moreno, Hugo (1968-06-01). "A Photometric Investigation of the SCORPlO-CENTAURUS Association". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 15: 459. doi:10.1086/190168. ISSN 0067-0049. Bibcode: 1968ApJS...15..459G. 
  127. ↑ Nugis, T.; Lamers, H.J.G.L.M. (2000). "Mass-loss rates of Wolf-Rayet stars as a function of stellar parameters". Astronomy and Astrophysics 360: 227. Bibcode: 2000A&A...360..227N. 
  128. ↑ Challouf, M.; Nardetto, N.; Mourard, D.; Graczyk, D.; Aroui, H.; Chesneau, O. et al. (2014). "Improving the surface brightness-color relation for early-type stars using optical interferometry". Astronomy & Astrophysics 570: A104. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201423772. Bibcode: 2014A&A...570A.104C. 
  129. ↑ Kudritzki, R.P.; Reimers, D. (1978). "On the absolute scale of mass-loss in red giants. II. Circumstellar absorption lines in the spectrum of α Sco B and mass-loss of α Sco A". Astronomy and Astrophysics 70: 227. Bibcode: 1978A&A....70..227K.α+Sco+B+and+mass-loss+of+α+Sco+A&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+and+Astrophysics&rft.aulast=Kudritzki&rft.aufirst=R.P.&rft.au=Kudritzki, R.P.&rft.au=Reimers, D.&rft.date=1978&rft.volume=70&rft.pages=227&rft_id=info:bibcode/1978A&A....70..227K&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Astronomy:List_of_most_massive_stars"> 
  130. ↑ Dervişoğlu, A.; Tout, Christopher A.; Ibanoğlu, C. (August 2010). "Spin angular momentum evolution of the long-period Algols". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 406 (2): 1071–1083. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16732.x. Bibcode: 2010MNRAS.406.1071D. 
  131. ↑ Nicolet, B. (October 1978). "Catalogue of homogeneous data in the UBV photoelectric photometric system". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series 34: 1–49. Bibcode: 1978A&AS...34....1N. 
  132. ↑ 132.0 132.1 David, Trevor J.; Hillenbrand, Lynne A. (2015). "The ages of early-type stars: Strömgren photometric methods calibrated, validated, tested, and applied to hosts and prospective hosts of directly imaged exoplanets". The Astrophysical Journal 804 (2): 146. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/804/2/146. Bibcode: 2015ApJ...804..146D. 
  133. ↑ Zorec, J.; Frémat, Y.; Cidale, L. (2005). "On the evolutionary status of Be stars. I. Field Be stars near the Sun". Astronomy and Astrophysics 441 (1): 235–248. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053051. Bibcode: 2005A&A...441..235Z. 
  134. ↑ Fernie, J.D. (May 1983). "New UBVRI photometry for 900 supergiants". Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 52: 7–22. doi:10.1086/190856. Bibcode: 1983ApJS...52....7F. 
  135. ↑ Sánchez Arias, Julieta Paz; Németh, Péter; De Almeida, Elisson Saldanha da Gama; Ruiz Diaz, Matias Agustin; Kraus, Michaela; Haucke, Maximiliano (2023). "Unveiling the Evolutionary State of Three B Supergiant Stars: PU Gem, ϵ CMa, and η CMa". Galaxies 11 (5): 93. doi:10.3390/galaxies11050093. Bibcode: 2023Galax..11...93S. 
  136. ↑ Hubrig, S.; Briquet, M.; de Cat, P.; Schöller, M.; Morel, T.; Ilyin, I. (2009). "New magnetic field measurements of β Cephei stars and slowly pulsating B stars" (in en). Astronomische Nachrichten 330 (4): 317–329. doi:10.1002/asna.200811187. Bibcode: 2009AN....330..317H. 
  137. ↑ de Almeida, E.S.G.; Meilland, A.; Domiciano de Souza, A.; Stee, P.; Mourard, D.; Nardetto, N. et al. (April 2020). "Visible and near-infrared spectro-interferometric analysis of the edge-on Be star o Aquarii". Astronomy & Astrophysics 636: 23. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936039. A110. Bibcode: 2020A&A...636A.110D. 
  138. ↑ Feinstein, A.; Marraco, H.G. (November 1979). "The photometric behavior of Be Stars". Astronomical Journal 84: 1713–1725. doi:10.1086/112600. Bibcode: 1979AJ.....84.1713F. 
  139. ↑ North, P. (1998). "Do SI stars undergo any rotational braking?". Astronomy and Astrophysics 334: 181–187. Bibcode: 1998A&A...334..181N. 
  140. ↑ Mermilliod, J.-C. (1986). "Compilation of Eggen's UBV data, transformed to UBV (unpublished)". Catalogue of Eggen's UBV Data (SIMBAD). 
  141. ↑ Mamajek, Eric E.; Lawson, Warrick A.; Feigelson, Eric D. (1999). "The η Chamaeleontis cluster: A remarkable new nearby young open cluster". The Astrophysical Journal 516 (2): L77–L80. doi:10.1086/312005. Bibcode: 1999ApJ...516L..77M. 
  142. ↑ Fang, M.; van Boekel, R.; Bouwman, J.; Henning, Th.; Lawson, W.A.; Sicilia-Aguilar, A. (January 2013). "Young stars in ϵ Chamaleontis and their disks: Disk evolution in sparse associations". Astronomy & Astrophysics 549: A15. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118528. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 2013A&A...549A..15F. 
  143. ↑ 143.0 143.1 Zorec, J.; Royer, F. (2012). "Rotational velocities of A-type stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics 537: A120. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117691. Bibcode: 2012A&A...537A.120Z. 
  144. ↑ Corben, P.M.; Stoy, R.H. (1968). "Photoelectric Magnitudes and Colours for Bright Southern Stars". Monthly Notes of the Astronomical Society of Southern Africa 27: 11. Bibcode: 1968MNSSA..27...11C. 
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  146. ↑ Gray, R.O.; Corbally, C.J.; Garrison, R.F.; McFadden, M.T.; Robinson, P.E. (2003). "Contributions to the Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: Spectroscopy of stars earlier than M0 within 40 parsecs: The Northern Sample. I.". Astronomical Journal 126 (4): 2048–2059. doi:10.1086/378365. Bibcode: 2003AJ....126.2048G. http://vizier.cfa.harvard.edu/viz-bin/VizieR-5?-ref=VIZ59a3e6516c46&-out.add=.&-source=J/AJ/126/2048/table1&recno=195. 
  147. ↑ Bond, Howard E.; Schaefer, Gail H.; Gilliland, Ronald L.; Holberg, Jay B.; Mason, Brian D.; Lindenblad, Irving W. et al. (2017). "The Sirius system and its astrophysical puzzles: Hubble Space Telescope and ground-based astrometry". The Astrophysical Journal 840 (2): 70. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa6af8. Bibcode: 2017ApJ...840...70B. 
  148. ↑ Luzum, Brian; Capitaine, Nicole; Fienga, Agnès; Folkner, William; Fukushima, Toshio; Hilton, James et al. (August 2011). "The IAU 2009 system of astronomical constants: the report of the IAU working group on numerical standards for Fundamental Astronomy" (in en). Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy 110 (4): 293–304. doi:10.1007/s10569-011-9352-4. ISSN 0923-2958. Bibcode: 2011CeMDA.110..293L. 
  149. ↑ Bessell, M.S.; Castelli, F.; Plez, B. (May 1998). "Model atmospheres broad-band colors, bolometric corrections and temperature calibrations for O–M stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics 333: 231–250. ISSN 0004-6361. Bibcode: 1998A&A...333..231B. 
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