Ali
From Handwiki | Aliعَلِيّ | |
|---|---|
| |
.JPG/250px-Istanbul_-_Santa_Sofia_-_Medalló_(cropped).JPG) Calligraphic pan bearing Ali's name at the Hagia Sophia | |
| Fourth Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate | |
| Reign | June 656 – January 661 |
| Predecessor | Uthman ibn Affan |
| Successor | Abolished position Hasan ibn Ali (as caliph) |
| First Shia Imam | |
| Tenure | June 632 – January 661 |
| Predecessor | Established position |
| Successor | Hasan ibn Ali |
| Born | c. 600 CE Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia |
| Died | c. 28 January 661 CE (c. 21 Ramadan 40 AH) (aged c. 60) Kufa, Rashidun Caliphate |
| Burial | Believed to be Imam Ali Shrine, Najaf, Iraq [ ⚑ ] 31°59′46″N 44°18′51″E / 31.996111°N 44.314167°E |
| Spouse | List of spouses
|
| Issue | Descendants of Ali
|
| Tribe | Quraysh (Banu Hashim) |
| Father | Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib |
| Mother | Fatima bint Asad |
| Religion | Islam |
Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: عَلِيّ ٱبْن أَبِي طَالِب; c. 600–661) was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the fourth Rashidun caliph, who ruled from 656 to 661, as well as the first Shia Imam. Born to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Fatima bint Asad, a young Ali was raised by his elder cousin Muhammad and was among the first to accept his teachings.
Ali played a pivotal role in the early years of Islam when Muslims were severely persecuted in Mecca. After immigration (Script error: The function "transl" does not exist.) to Medina in 622, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage and swore a pact of brotherhood with him. Ali served as Muhammad's secretary and deputy in this period, and was the flag bearer of his army. Numerous sayings of Muhammad praise Ali, the most controversial of which was uttered in 632 at the Ghadir Khumm, "Whoever I am his Script error: The function "transl" does not exist., this Ali is his Script error: The function "transl" does not exist.." The interpretation of the polysemous Arabic word Script error: The function "transl" does not exist. is disputed: For Shia Muslims, Muhammad thus invested Ali with his religious and political authority, while Sunni Muslims view this as a mere statement of friendship and rapport. When Muhammad died in the same year, a group of Muslims met in the absence of Ali and appointed Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) as their leader. Ali later relinquished his claims to leadership and resigned from public life during the reigns of Abu Bakr and his successor, Umar (r. 634–644). Even though his advice was occasionally sought, the conflicts between Ali and the first two caliphs are epitomized by his refusal to follow their practices. This refusal cost Ali the caliphate to the benefit of Uthman (r. 644–656), who was thus appointed to succeed Umar by the electoral council. Ali was also highly critical of Uthman, who was widely accused of nepotism and corruption. Yet Ali also repeatedly mediated between the caliph and the provincial dissidents angered by his policies.
Following Uthman's assassination in June 656, Ali was elected caliph in Medina. He immediately faced two separate rebellions, both ostensibly to avenge Uthman: The triumvirate of Talha, Zubayr, both companions of Muhammad, and his widow Aisha captured Basra in Iraq but were defeated by Ali in the Battle of the Camel in 656. Elsewhere, Mu'awiya, whom Ali had just removed from the governorship of Syria, fought against Ali the inconclusive Battle of Siffin in 657, which ended in a failed arbitration process that alienated some of Ali's supporters. These formed the Kharijites, who later terrorized the public and were crushed by Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan in 658. Ali was assassinated in 661 by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam, which paved the way for Mu'awiya to seize power and found the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate.
Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Muslim culture. Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims. For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry. Sunni Muslims regard him as the last of the Rashidun (lit. rightly-guided) caliphs, while Shia Muslims venerate him as their first imam, that is, the rightful religious and political successor to Muhammad. The shrine of Ali in Najaf, Iraq, is a major destination for Shia pilgrimage. The legacy of Ali is collected and studied in numerous books, the most famous of which is Script error: The function "transl" does not exist..
Birth and early life
Ali was born in Mecca to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and his wife Fatima bint Asad around 600 CE.[1] His date of birth is possibly 13 Rajab,[2][3] which is the occasion celebrated annually by Shia Muslims.[4] Ali may have been the only person born inside Ka'ba,[3][2][1] the holiest site of Islam, which is located in Mecca. However, this is disputed by Sunni sources, which state Hakim ibn Hizam was also born in the Ka'ba.[5] Furthermore, Sunni scholar Al-Nawawi regards the birth of Ali in the Ka'ba as weak.[6] Ali's father was a leading member of the Banu Hashim, a clan within the Meccan tribe of Quraysh.[2] Abu Talib also raised his nephew Muhammad after his parents died. Later when Abu Talib fell into poverty, Ali was taken in at the age of about five and raised by Muhammad and his wife Khadija.[3]
Aged about eleven,[1] Ali was among the first to accept Muhammad's teachings and profess Islam. Ali did so either after Khadija or after Khadija and Muhammad's successor, Abu Bakr. While the precise order here is debated among Shia and Sunni scholars,[7] the earliest sources place Ali before Abu Bakr.[1] Muhammad's call to Islam in Mecca lasted from 610 to 622, during which Ali assiduously supported the small Muslim community, especially the poor.[3] Some three years after his first revelation,[8] Muhammad gathered his relatives for a feast, invited them to Islam, and asked for their assistance.[9] Aged about fourteen,[9][10] Ali was the only relative there who offered his support, after which Muhammad told his guests that Ali was his brother and his successor,[1][9] according to the Sunni historian al-Tabari (d. 923). The Shia interpretation of this episode is that Muhammad had already designated Ali as his successor.[9][11]
Companionship of Muhammad
When tipped off about an assassination plot in 622, Muhammad escaped to Yathrib, now known as Medina, but Ali stayed behind as his decoy.[3][12] That Ali risked his life for Muhammad is said to be the reason for the revelation of the Quranic passage, "But there is also a kind of man who gives his life away to please God."[13][14][2] This emigration marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar (AH). Ali too escaped Mecca after returning the goods entrusted to Muhammad there.[7] Later in Medina, Muhammad selected Ali as his brother when he paired Muslims for fraternity pacts.[15] Around 623–625, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage,[16][17] aged about twenty-two at the time.[3] Muhammad had earlier turned down marriage proposals for Fatima by some of his companions, notably, Abu Bakr and Umar.[18][17][19]
Event of the Script error: The function "transl" does not exist.
A Christian envoy from Najran, located in South Arabia, arrived in Medina circa 632 and negotiated a peace treaty with Muhammad.[20][21] The envoy also debated with Muhammad the nature of Jesus, human or divine.[22][23] Linked to this episode is verse 3:61 of the Quran,[24] which instructs Muhammad to challenge his opponents to Script error: The function "transl" does not exist. (lit. mutual cursing),[25] perhaps when their debate had reached a deadlock.[23] Even though the delegation ultimately withdrew from the challenge,[21] Muhammad appeared for the occasion of Script error: The function "transl" does not exist., accompanied by Ali, his wife Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Husayn.[26][15] The inclusion of these four by Muhammad in the Script error: The function "transl" does not exist. ritual, as his witnesses and guarantors,[27][28] likely raised their religious rank within the community.[22][29] If the word 'ourselves' in the verse is a reference to Ali and Muhammad, as Shia authors argue, then the former naturally enjoys a similar religious authority in the Quran as the latter.[30][31]
_in_honor_of_Imam_'Ali.jpg/250px-Levha_(panel)_in_honor_of_Imam_'Ali.jpg)
Political career
In Medina, Ali acted as Muhammad's secretary and deputy.[32][7] He was also one of the scribes tasked with committing the Quran to writing.[3] In 628, Ali wrote down the terms of the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, the peace treaty between Muslims and Meccan pagans. In 630, divine orders pushed Muhammad to replace Abu Bakr with Ali for a key Quranic announcement in Mecca,[33][34] according to the canonical Sunni source Script error: The function "transl" does not exist..[2] Ali also helped ensure that the Conquest of Mecca in 630 was bloodless and later destroyed the idols housed in Ka'ba.[3] In 631, Ali was sent to preach Islam in Yemen,[3] as a consequence of which the Hamdanids peacefully converted.[12][2] Ali also peacefully resolved a blood feud between Muslims and the Banu Jadhima.[2]
Military career
Ali accompanied Muhammad in all of his military missions except the Expedition of Tabuk in 630, during which Ali was left behind in charge of Medina.[12] The hadith of the position is linked to this occasion, "Are you not content, Ali, to stand to me as Aaron stood to Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me?" This statement appears in the canonical Sunni sources Script error: The function "transl" does not exist. and Script error: The function "transl" does not exist., among others.[35] For the Shia, this hadith signifies Ali's usurped right to succeed Muhammad.[36] In the absence of Muhammad, Ali commanded the expedition to Fadak in 628.[7][3]
Ali was renowned for his bravery on the battlefield,[15][7] and for his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies.[37] He was the standard-bearer in the Battle of Badr (624) and the Battle of Khaybar (628).[32] He vigorously defended Muhammad in the Battle of Uhud (625) and the Battle of Hunayn (630),[15][3] and Muslims' victory in the Battle of Khaybar has been attributed to his courage,[7] where he is said to have torn off the iron gate of the enemy fort.[15] Ali also defeated the pagan champion Amr ibn Abd Wudd in the Battle of the Trench in 627.[2] According to al-Tabari,[2] Muhammad reported hearing a divine voice at Uhud, "[There is] no sword but Zulfiqar [Ali's sword], [there is] no chivalrous youth (Script error: The function "transl" does not exist.) but Ali."[34][3] Ali and another companion, Zubayr, apparently oversaw the killing of the Banu Qurayza men for treachery in 626–627,[7] though the historicity of this account has been doubted.[38][39][40]
Ghadir Khumm
On his return trip from the Hajj pilgrimage in 632, Muhammad halted the large caravan of pilgrims at the Ghadir Khumm and addressed them after the congregational prayer.[41] After the prayer,[42] Muhammad delivered a sermon to a large number of Muslims in which he emphasized the importance of the Quran and his Script error: The function "transl" does not exist. (lit. people of the house, his family).[43][44][45][46] Taking Ali by the hand, Muhammad then asked if he was not Script error: The function "transl" does not exist. (lit. have more authority over – lit. closer to) the believers than themselves,[46][47] this is evidently a reference to verse 33:6 of the Quran.[48][49] When they affirmed,[46] Muhammad then declared, "He whose Script error: The function "transl" does not exist. I am, Ali is his Script error: The function "transl" does not exist.."[50][46] Script error: The function "transl" does not exist., a canonical Sunni source, adds that Muhammad repeated this statement three or four more times and that Umar congratulated Ali after the sermon, "You have now become the Script error: The function "transl" does not exist. of every faithful man and woman."[51][45] Muhammad had earlier alerted Muslims about his impending death.[52][43][53] Shia sources describe the event in greater detail, linking the announcement to verses 5:3 and 5:67 of the Quran.[52]
The authenticity of the Ghadir Khumm is rarely contested,[46][54][55][43] as its "among the most extensively acknowledged and substantiated" reports in classical Islamic sources.[56] However, Script error: The function "transl" does not exist. is a polysemous Arabic word and its interpretation in the context of the Ghadir Khumm is split along sectarian lines. Shia sources interpret Script error: The function "transl" does not exist. as 'leader', 'master', and 'patron', [57] while Sunni sources interpret it as love or support for Ali.[3][58] Shias, therefore, view the Ghadir Khumm as the investiture of Ali with Muhammad's religious and political authority,[59][60][2] while Sunnis regard it as a statement about the rapport between the two men,[3][43][61] or that Ali should execute Muhammad's will.[3] Shias point to the extraordinary nature of the announcement,[58] give Quranic and textual evidence,[62][52][43] and argue to eliminate other meanings of Script error: The function "transl" does not exist. in the hadith except for authority,[63] while Sunnis minimize the importance of the Ghadir Khumm by casting it as a simple response to earlier complaints about Ali.[64] During his caliphate, Ali is known to have asked Muslims to come forward with their testimonies about the Ghadir Khumm,[65][66][67] presumably to counter challenges to his legitimacy.[68]
Life under Rashidun Caliphs
Succession to Muhammad
Saqifa
Muhammad died in 632 when Ali was in his early thirties.[69] As he and other close relatives prepared for the burial,[70][71] a group of the Ansar (Medinan natives, lit. helpers) gathered at the Saqifa to discuss the future of Muslims or to retake control of their city, Medina. Abu Bakr and Umar were among the few representatives of the Muhajirun (Meccan converts, lit. migrants) at the Saqifa.[72] The case of Ali was unsuccessfully brought up at the Saqifa in his absence,[73][74] and, ultimately, those present there appointed Abu Bakr to leadership after a heated debate that is said to have become violent.[75] Clan rivalries at the Saqifa played a key role in favor of Abu Bakr,[70][76] and the outcome may have been different in a broad council (Script error: The function "transl" does not exist.) with Ali as a candidate.[77][78] In particular, the Quraysh tradition of hereditary succession strongly favored Ali,[79][80][81] even though his youth weakened his case.[7][69] By contrast, the succession (caliphate) of Abu Bakr is often justified on the basis that he led some of the prayers in Muhammad's final days,[70][82] but the veracity and political significance of such reports have been questioned.[70][83][84]
Attack on Fatima's house
While the appointment of Abu Bakr was met with little resistance in Medina,[82] the Banu Hashim and some companions of Muhammad soon gathered in protest at Ali's house.[85][86] Among them were Zubayr and Muhammad's uncle Abbas.[86] These protestors held Ali to be the rightful successor to Muhammad,[17][87] probably in reference to the Ghadir Khumm.[43] Among others,[88] al-Tabari reports that Umar then led an armed mob to Ali's residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters did not pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakr.[89][17][90][91] The scene soon grew violent,[88][92] but the mob retreated after Ali's wife, Fatima, pleaded with them.[89] Abu Bakr later placed a successful boycott on the Banu Hashim,[93] who eventually abandoned their support for Ali.[93][94] Most likely, Ali himself did not pledge his allegiance to Abu Bakr until Fatima died within six months of her father, Muhammad.[95] In Shia sources, the death (and miscarriage) of the young Fatima are attributed to an attack on her house to subdue Ali by the order of Abu Bakr.[96][17][87] Sunnis categorically reject these reports,[97] but there is evidence in their early sources that a mob entered Fatima's house by force and arrested Ali,[98][99][100] an incident that Abu Bakr regretted on his deathbed.[101][102] Likely a political move to weaken the Banu Hashim,[103][104][105][106] Abu Bakr had earlier confiscated from Fatima the rich lands of Fadak, which she considered her inheritance (or a gift) from her father.[107][108] The confiscation of Fadak is often justified in Sunni sources with a hadith about prophetic inheritance, the authenticity of which has been doubted partly because it contradicts Quranic injunctions.[107][109]
Caliphate of Abu Bakr (r. 632–634)
In the absence of popular support, Ali eventually accepted the temporal rule of Abu Bakr, probably for the sake of Muslim unity.[110][111][112] In particular, Ali turned down proposals to forcefully pursue the caliphate.[113][7] He nevertheless viewed himself as the most qualified candidate for leadership by virtue of his merits and his kinship with Muhammad.[114][115][116] Evidence suggests that Ali further considered himself as the designated successor of Muhammad.[117][66][118] Unlike Muhammad's lifetime,[119][120] Ali retired from public life during the caliphates of Abu Bakr and his successors, Umar and Uthman.[3][119][15] Even though Ali reputedly advised Abu Bakr and Umar on government and religious matters,[3][15] their conflicts with Ali is also well-documented,[121][122][123] but largely ignored in Sunni sources.[124][125] These tensions were epitomized during the proceedings of the electoral council in 644 when Ali refused to be bound by the precedence of the first two caliphs.[120][119] In contrast, Shia sources view Ali's pledge to Abu Bakr as a (coerced) act of political expediency (Script error: The function "transl" does not exist.).[126] The conflicts with Ali are probably magnified in Shia sources.[124]
Caliphate of Umar (r. 634–644)
Before his death in 634, Abu Bakr designated Umar as his successor.[127] Ali was not consulted about this appointment, which was initially resisted by some senior companions.[128] Ali himself did not press any claims this time and kept aloof from public affairs during the caliphate of Umar,[129] who nevertheless consulted Ali in certain matters.[3][130] For instance, Ali is credited with the idea of adopting the migration to Medina (Script error: The function "transl" does not exist.) as the beginning of the Islamic calendar.[12] Yet Ali's political advice was probably ignored.[7] For example, Umar devised a state register (Script error: The function "transl" does not exist.) to distribute excess state revenues according to Islamic precedence,[131] but Ali held that those revenues should be equally distributed among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.[132][7] Ali was also absent from the strategic meeting of notables near Damascus.[7] Ali did not participate in Umar's military expeditions,[133][1] although he does not seem to have publicly objected to them.[1] Umar likely opposed the combination of prophethood and caliphate in the Banu Hashim,[134][135] and he thus prevented Muhammad from dictating his will on his deathbed,[44][136][137] possibly fearing that he might expressly designate Ali as his successor.[138] Nevertheless, perhaps realizing the necessity of Ali's cooperation in his collaborative scheme of governance, Umar made some limited overtures to Ali and the Banu Hashim during his caliphate.[139] For instance, Umar returned Muhammad's estates in Medina to Ali, but kept Fadak and Khayber.[140] By some accounts, Umar also insisted on marrying Ali's daughter Umm Kulthum, to which Ali reluctantly agreed when the former enlisted public support for his demand.[141]
Election of Uthman (644)
.jpg/250px-Balami_-_Tarikhnama_-_the_election_of_'Othman_as_the_caliphate_of_Medina_(cropped).jpg)
Before his death in 644,[142] Umar tasked a small committee with choosing the next caliph among themselves.[143] Ali and Uthman were the strongest candidates in this committee,[144][145] whose members were all early companions of Muhammad from the Quraysh tribe.[143] Another member, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, was given the deciding vote either by the committee or by Umar.[146][147][148] After deliberations, Ibn Awf appointed his brother-in-law Uthman as the next caliph,[149][150] when the latter promised to follow the precedent of the first two caliphs.[149] By contrast, Ali rejected this condition,[149][148] or gave an evasive answer.[151] The Ansar were not represented in the committee,[152][147] which was evidently biased toward Uthman.[153][154][148] Both of these factors worked against Ali,[147][155][156] who could have not been simply excluded from the proceedings.[157]
Caliphate of Uthman (r. 644–656)
Uthman was widely accused of nepotism,[158] corruption,[159][160] and injustice.[161] Ali too criticized Uthman's conduct,[7][1][162] including his lavish gifts for his kinsmen.[163][164] Ali also protected outspoken companions, such as Abu Dharr and Ammar,[165][166] and overall acted as a restraining influence on Uthman.[165] Some supporters of Ali were part of the opposition movement,[167][168] joined in their efforts by Talha and Zubayr, both senior companions of Muhammad, and by his widow Aisha.[169][170][167] Among such supporters of Ali were Malik al-Ashtar and other religiously learned Script error: The function "transl" does not exist. (lit. Quran readers).[171][164] These supporters wanted to see Ali as the next caliph but there is no evidence that he coordinated with them.[172] Ali also rejected the requests to lead the rebels,[7][173] although he probably sympathized with their grievances.[174][173] He was therefore considered a natural focus for the opposition,[175] at least morally.[7]
Assassination of Uthman (656)
As their grievances mounted, provincial dissidents poured into Medina in 656.[15] The Egyptian opposition sought the advice of Ali, who urged them to negotiate with Uthman.[176][177] Ali similarly asked the Iraqi opposition to refrain from violence, which they heeded.[178] He also repeatedly mediated between Uthman and the dissidents,[15][179][180] to address their economical and political grievances.[181][15] In particular, Ali negotiated and guaranteed the agreement that ended the first siege.[182][15] He then convinced Uthman to publicly repent,[183] but the caliph soon retracted his statement, possibly pressed by his secretary Marwan ibn al-Hakam.[184] Egyptian rebels laid siege to Uthman's residence for a second time when they intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment. They demanded the caliph's abdication but he refused and maintained his innocence about the letter,[185] for which Marwan is often blamed in the early sources.[186][187] Ali also sided with Uthman,[185] but the caliph apparently accused him about the letter.[188] This is probably when Ali refused to further intercede for Uthman,[185][175] who was assassinated soon afterward by Egyptian rebels.[186][189][190] Ali played no role in the deadly attack,[7][191] and his son Hasan was injured while guarding Uthman's besieged residence at the request of Ali.[3][192][167] He also convinced the rebels to deliver water to Uthman's house during the siege.[185][165]
Caliphate
Election (656)
When Uthman was assassinated in 656 by Egyptian rebels,[186] the potential candidates for caliphate were Ali and Talha. The Umayyads had fled Medina, leaving the provincial rebels and the Ansar in control of the city. Among the Egyptians, Talha enjoyed some support, but the Iraqis and most of the Ansar supported Ali.[110] The majority of the Muhajirun,[15][173][193] and key tribal figures also favored Ali at this time.[194] The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali, who, after some hesitation,[173][15][1] publicly took the oath of office.[195][196][197] Malik al-Ashtar might have been the first to pledge his allegiance to Ali.[197] Talha and Zubayr, who both aspired to the caliphate,[198][199] also gave their pledges to Ali, most likely willingly,[1][200][192] but later broke their oaths.[201][1][202] Ali probably did not force anyone to pledge,[195] and there is little evidence of any violence, even though many broke with Ali later, claiming that they had pledged under duress.[203] At the same time, the supporters, who were in majority in Medina, might have intimidated others.[204]
Legitimacy
_(painting,_recto;_text,_verso),_folio_from_a_manuscript_of_Maktel-i_Ali_Resul_of_Lami‘i_Chelebi,_late_16th_century.jpg/250px-Ali_Receiving_the_Bay'a_(Swearing_of_Allegiance)_(painting,_recto;_text,_verso),_folio_from_a_manuscript_of_Maktel-i_Ali_Resul_of_Lami‘i_Chelebi,_late_16th_century.jpg)
Ali thus filled the power vacuum created by the regicide.[205][179][206] His election, irregular and without a council,[110] faced little public opposition in Medina,[191][207][205] but the rebels' support for him left him exposed to accusations of complicity in Uthman's assassination.[7] Even though underprivileged groups readily rallied around Ali,[208][198] he had limited support among the powerful Quraysh, some of whom aspired to caliphate.[209][110] Within the Quraysh, two camps opposed Ali: the Umayyads, who believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman, and those who wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the same principles laid by Abu Bakr and Umar. This second group was likely the majority within the Quraysh.[201][191] Ali was indeed vocal about the divine prerogative of Muhammad's kin to leadership,[210][211] which would have jeopardized the political ambitions of the rest of the Quraysh.[212]
Administrative policies
Justice
The caliphate of Ali was characterized by his strict justice.[214][215][15] He implemented radical policies to restore his vision of prophetic governance,[216][217][218] and dismissed nearly all of Uthman's governors,[209] whom he considered corrupt.[219] Ali also distributed the treasury funds equally among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad,[220] and is said to have shown zero tolerance for corruption.[221][222] Some of those affected by Ali's egalitarian policies soon revolted against him under the pretext of revenge for Uthman.[223] Among them was Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria.[168] Ali has therefore been criticized by some for political naivety and excessive rigorism,[7][224] and praised by others for righteousness and lack of political expediency.[223][218] His supporters identify similar decisions of Muhammad,[225][226] and argue that Islam never allows for compromising on a just cause, citing verse 68:9 of the Quran,[226] "They wish that thou might compromise and that they might compromise."[227][228] Some instead suggest that Ali's decisions were actually justified on a practical level.[196][229][15] For instance, the removal of unpopular governors was perhaps the only option available to Ali because injustice was the main grievance of the rebels.[196]
Religious authority
As evident from his public speeches,[230] Ali viewed himself not only as the temporal leader of the Muslim community but also as its exclusive religious authority.[231][232] He thus laid claim to the religious authority to interpret the Quran and Sunna.[233][234] Some supporters of Ali indeed held him as their divinely-guided leader who deserved the same type of loyalty that Muhammad did.[235] They felt an absolute and all-encompassing bond of spiritual loyalty (Script error: The function "transl" does not exist.) to Ali that transcended politics.[236] For instance, many of them publicly offered Ali their unconditional support circa 658.[237][238] They justified their absolute loyalty to Ali on the basis of his merits, precedent in Islam,[239] his kinship with Muhammad,[240] and also the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm.[236] Many of these supporters also viewed Ali as the rightful successor to Muhammad after his death,[241] as evidenced in the poetry from that period, for instance.[242][243]
Fiscal policies
Ali opposed centralized control over provincial revenues.[194] He equally distributed excess taxes and booty among Muslims,[194][7] following the precedent of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.[244][220] In comparison, Umar had distributed the state revenues according to perceived Islamic merit,[245][246] and Uthman was widely accused of nepotism and corruption.[158][247][159] The strictly egalitarian policies of Ali earned him the support of underprivileged groups, including the Ansar, the Script error: The function "transl" does not exist., and the late immigrants to Iraq.[208] By contrast, Talha and Zubayr were both Qurayshite companions of Muhammad who had amassed immense wealth under Uthman.[248] They both revolted against Ali when he refused to grant them favors.[249][220] Some other figures among the Quraysh similarly turned against Ali,[250][251] who even withheld public funds from his relatives,[252][253] whereas his archenemy Mu'awiya readily offered bribes.[251][254] Ali instructed his officials to collect tax payments on a voluntary basis and without harassment, and to prioritize the poor when distributing public funds.[255] A letter attributed to Ali directs his governor to pay more attention to land development than taxation.[256][257]
Rules of war
During the Muslim civil war, Ali forbade his soldiers from looting,[258][259] and instead paid them from tax revenues.[258] He also pardoned his enemies in victory.[259][260] Both of these practices were later enshrined in Islamic law.[259] Ali also advised his commander al-Ashtar not to reject any calls to peace, not to violate any agreements,[261] and ordered him not to commence hostilities.[262] Ali similarly barred his troops from disturbing civilians,[263] killing the wounded and those who fled, mutilating the dead, entering homes without permission, looting, and harming women.[264] He prevented the enslavement of women in victory, even though some protested.[7] Before the Battle of Siffin with Mu'awiya, Ali did not retaliate and allowed his enemies to access drinking water when he gained the upper hand.[265][266]
Battle of the Camel
Aisha publicly campaigned against Ali immediately after his accession.[267][209] She was joined in Mecca by her close relatives, Talha and Zubayr,[268] who thus broke their earlier oaths of allegiance to Ali.[201][1][202] This opposition demanded the punishment of Uthman's assassins,[269][179] and accused Ali of complicity in the assassination.[179][201][15] They also called for the removal of Ali from office and for a Qurayshite council to appoint his successor.[209][270] Their primary goal was likely the removal of Ali, rather than vengeance for Uthman,[270]Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". against whom the triumvirate had stirred up public opinion.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The opposition failed to gain enough traction in Hejaz,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and instead captured Basra in Iraq,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". killing many there. Ali raised an army from nearby Kufa,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". which formed the core of Ali's forces in the coming battles.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The two armies soon camped just outside of Basra,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". both probably numbered around ten thousand men.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". After three days of failed negotiations,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". the two sides readied for battle.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Account of the battle
The battle took place in December 656.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The rebels commenced hostilities,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and Aisha was present on the battlefield, riding in an armored palanquin atop a red camel, after which the battle is named.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Talha was soon killed by another rebel, Marwan, the secretary of Uthman.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Zubayr, an experienced fighter, deserted shortly after the battle had begun,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". but was pursued and killed.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". His desertion suggests he had serious moral misgivings about their cause.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali won the day,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and Aisha was respectfully escorted back to Hejaz.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali then announced a public pardon,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". setting free all war prisoners, even Marwan,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and prohibiting the enslavement of their women. Their seized properties were also returned.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali then stationed himself in Kufa,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". which thus became his de facto capital.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Battle of Siffin
thumb|right|Combat between the forces of Ali and Mu'awiya during the Battle of Siffin, from the Tarikhnama''
Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria, was deemed corrupt and unfit by Ali,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". who wrote to and removed him from his post.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In turn, Mu'awiya, as Uthman's cousin, launched a propaganda campaign across Syria, blaming Ali for the regicide and calling for revenge.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Mu'awiya also joined forces with Amr ibn al-As,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". a military strategist,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". who pledged to back the Umayyads against Ali in return for life-long governorship of Egypt.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Yet Mu'awiya also secretly offered to recognize the caliphate of Ali in return for Syria and Egypt,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". which Ali rejected.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Mu'awiya then formally declared war, charging Ali with regicide, demanding his removal, and a Syrian council thereafter to elect the next caliph.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Contemporary authors tend to view Mu'awiya's call for revenge as a pretext for power grab.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Account of the battle
In the summer of 657, the armies of Ali and Mu'awiya camped at Siffin, west of the Euphrates River,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". numbering perhaps at 100,000 and 130,000, respectively.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Many of Muhammad's companions were present in Ali's army, whereas Mu'awiya could only boast a handful.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The two sides negotiated for a while, to no avail,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". after which the main battle took place from Wednesday, 26 July 657,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". until Friday or Saturday morning.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali probably refrained from initiating hostilities,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and later fought alongside his men on the frontline, whereas Mu'awiya led from his pavilion,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and rejected a proposal to settle the matters in a personal duel with Ali.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Among those killed fighting for Ali was Ammar.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In canonical Sunni sources, a prophetic hadith predicts Ammar's death at the hands of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". (lit. rebellious aggressive group) who call to hellfire.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Call to arbitration
Fighting stopped when some Syrians raised pages of the Quran on their lances, shouting, "Let the Book of God be the judge between us."Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Since Mu'awiya had for long insisted on battle, this call for arbitration suggests that he now feared defeat.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". By contrast, Ali exhorted his men to fight, telling them that raising Qurans was for deception, but to no avail.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Through their representatives, the Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and the Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". tribesmen of Kufa,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". the largest bloc in Ali's army,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". both threatened Ali with mutiny if he did not answer the Syrians' call.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Facing strong peace sentiments in his army, Ali accepted the arbitration proposal,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". most likely against his own judgment.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Arbitration agreement
Mu'awiya now proposed that representatives from both sides should find a Quranic resolution.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Mu'awiya was represented by his ally Amr,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". whereas, despite Ali's opposition, the majority in his camp pressed for the neutral Abu Musa, the erstwhile governor of Kufa.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The arbitration agreement was written and signed on 2 August 657,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". stipulating that the two representatives should meet on neutral territory,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". adhere to the Quran and Sunna, and restore peace.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Both armies left the battlefield after the agreement.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The arbitration agreement thus divided Ali's camp, as many did not support his negotiations with Mu'awiya, whose claims they considered fraudulent. By contrast, the agreement strengthened Mu'awiya's position, who was now an equal contender for the caliphate.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Formation of the Kharijites
.png/250px-Iraq_under_the_Abbasid_Caliphate_(cropped).png)
Some of Ali's men left him in protest to the arbitration agreement.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Many of them eventually rejoined Ali,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". while the rest gathered in the town of al-Nahrawan.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". They became known as the Kharijites (lit. seceders), who later took up arms against Ali in the Battle of Nahrawan.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Kharijites, many of whom belonged to the Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". were likely disillusioned with the arbitration process.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Their slogan was, "No judgment but that of God,"Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". highlighting their rejection of arbitration (by men) in reference to the Quranic verse 49:9.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali called this slogan a word of truth by which the seceders sought falsehood because he viewed the ruler as indispensable in the conduct of religion.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Arbitration proceedings
The two arbitrators met together in Dumat al-Jandal,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". perhaps in February 658.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". There they reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". They could not agree on anything else.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Rather than a judicial ruling, this was a political concession by Abu Musa, who probably hoped that Amr would later reciprocate this gesture.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began organizing a second Syria campaign.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Solely an initiative of Mu'awiya,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". there was also a second meeting in Udhruh.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The negotiations there also failed,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". as the two arbitrators could not agree on the next caliph: Amr supported Mu'awiya,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". while Abu Musa nominated his son-in-law Abd Allah ibn Umar,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". who stood down.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". At its closure, Abu Musa publicly deposed both Mu'awiya and Ali and called for a council to appoint his successor per earlier agreements with Amr. When Amr took the stage, however, he deposed Ali and appointed Mu'awiya as his successor.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and the common view is that the arbitration failed,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". or was inconclusive.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". It nevertheless strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Battle of Nahrawan
,_between_Ali_and_the_Havaric_(Kharijites)._Ali,_mounted_on_Duldul,_is_wielding_his_double-bladed_sword,_Zulfikar._From_a_manuscript_of_Maktel-i_Ali_Resul,_Ottoman_Turkey,_late_16th_or_early_17th_century.jpg/250px-thumbnail.jpg)
After the arbitration, Mu'awiya received the Syrians' pledge as caliph.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali then organized a new, much smaller,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Syria campaign.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". But he postponed the expedition,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and instead marched to Nahrawan with his army,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". when he learned that the Kharijites were interrogating and executing civilians.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". They killed many, apparently not even sparing women.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali convinced many of the Kharijites to separate from their army, leaving about 1,500–1,800, or 2,800, out of about 4,000 fighters.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The rest of the Kharijites then attacked and were crushed by Ali's army of about 14,000 men.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The battle took place either on 17 July 658,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". or in 657.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali has been criticized by some for killing his erstwhile allies,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". many of whom were outwardly pious Muslims. For others, subduing the Kharijites was necessary, for they were violent and radicalized rebels who posed a danger to Ali's base in Kufa.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Final years
Following the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali could not muster enough support for a second Syria campaign.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Perhaps his soldiers were demoralized, Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". or perhaps they were recalled by their tribal leaders,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". many of whom had been bribed and swayed by Mu'awiya.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". By contrast, Ali did not grant any financial favors to tribal chiefs as a matter of principle.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". At any rate, the secession of so many of the Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and the coolness of the tribal leaders weakened Ali.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali consequently lost Egypt to Mu'awiya in 658.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Mu'awiya also began dispatching military detachments,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". which targeted civilians along the Euphrates river, near Kufa, and most successfully, in the Hejaz and Yemen.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali could not mount a timely response to these assaults.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". He eventually found sufficient support for a second Syria offensive, set to commence in late winter 661. His success was in part due to the public outrage over Syrian raids.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". However, plans for a second campaign were abandoned after the assassination of Ali.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Assassination and burial
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Ali was assassinated during the morning prayer on 28 January 661 (19 Ramadan 40 AH) at the Great Mosque of Kufa. The other given dates are 26 and 30 January. He was struck over his head by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam with a poison-coated sword,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". in revenge for their defeat in the Battle of Nahrawan.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali died from his wounds about two days later, aged sixty-two or sixty-three. By some accounts, he had long known about his fate by premonition or through Muhammad.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Before his death, Ali requested either a meticulous application of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". to Ibn Muljam or his pardon. At any rate, Ibn Muljam was later executed by Hasan, the eldest son of Ali.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Fearing that his body might be exhumed and profaned by his enemies, Ali was buried secretly near Kufa.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". His burial site was identified during the caliphate of the Abbasid Harun al-Rashid (r. 786 – 809) and the town of Najaf developed around it, which has become a major destination for Shia pilgrimage.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The present shrine was built by the Safavid monarch Safi (r. 1629 – 1642),Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". near which lies an immense cemetery for Shias who wished to be buried next to their imam.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Najaf is also home to top religious colleges and prominent Shia scholars.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Succession
When Ali died, his son Hasan was acknowledged as the next caliph in Kufa.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". As Ali's legatee, Hasan was the obvious choice for the Kufans, especially because Ali was vocal about the exclusive right of Muhammad's kin to leadership.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Most surviving companions of Muhammad were in Ali's army, and they also pledged their allegiance to Hasan,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". but overall the Kufans' support for Hasan was likely weak.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Hasan later abdicated in August 661 to Mu'awiya when the latter marched on Iraq with a large force.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Mu'awiya thus founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate. Throughout his reign, he persecuted the family and supporters of Ali,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and mandated regular public cursing of Ali.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Descendants of Ali
The first marriage of Ali was to Fatima, who bore him three sons, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhsin.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Muhsin either died in infancy,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". or Fatima miscarried her when she was injured in a raid on her house during the succession crisis.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The descendants of Hasan and Husayn are known as the Hasanids and the Husaynids, respectively.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". As the progeny of Muhammad, they are honored in Muslim communities by nobility titles such as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali and Fatima also had two daughters, Zaynab and Umm Kulthum.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". After Fatima's death in 632, Ali remarried multiple times and had more children, including Muhammad al-Awsat and Abbas ibn Ali.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In his life, Ali fathered seventeen daughters, and eleven, fourteen, or eighteen sons,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". among whom, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya played a historical role.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Descendants of Ali are known as the Alids.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Under the Umayyads (661–750)
Mu'awiya succeeded Ali in 661 and founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". during which Alids were severely persecuted.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". After Ali, his followers (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) recognized his eldest son Hasan as their imam. When he died in 670, likely poisoned at the instigation of Mu'awiya,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". the Shia community followed Hasan's younger brother Husayn, who was killed by Umayyad forces in the Battle of Karbala in 680, alongside many of his relatives.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". To revenge the Karbala massacre, soon followed in 685 the Shia uprising of al-Mukhtar, who claimed to represent Ibn al-Hanafiyya.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The main movements that followed this uprising were the now-extinct Kaysanites and the Imamites.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Kaysanites mostly followed Abu Hashim, the son of Ibn al-Hanafiya. When Abu Hashim died around 716, this group largely aligned itself with the Abbasids, that is, the descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". On the other hand, the Imamites were led by quiescent descendants of Husayn, through his only surviving son, Ali Zayn al-Abidin (d. 713). An exception was Ali's son Zayd, who led a failed uprising against the Umayyads around 740.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". For his followers, known as the Zaydites, any learned Hasanid or Husaynid who rose against tyranny qualified as imam.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Under the Abbasids (750–1258)
Alids were also persecuted under the Abbasids, who toppled the Umayyads in 750.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Some of the Alids thus revolted,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". while some established regional dynasties in remote areas.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In particular, through imprisonment or surveillance, the Abbasids removed the imams of the Imamites from public life,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and they are thought to be responsible for the imams' deaths.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Mainstream Imamites were the antecedents of the Twelvers,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". who believe that their twelfth and final imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was born around 868,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". but was hidden from the public in 874 for fear of persecution. He remains in occultation by divine will until his reappearance at the end of time to eradicate injustice and evil.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The only historic split among the Imamites happened when their sixth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, died in 765.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Some claimed that his designated successor was his son Isma'il, who had predeceased al-Sadiq. These were the antecedents of the Isma'ilites,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". who found political success at the turn of the tenth century,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". as the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt and the Qarmatians in Bahrain.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Works
Most of the works attributed to Ali were first delivered as speeches and later committed to writing by others. There are also supplications, such as Du'a Kumayl, which he may have taught others.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". (lit. the path of eloquence) is an eleventh-century collection of sermons, letters, and sayings, all attributed to Ali, compiled by Sharif al-Radi (d. 1015), a prominent Twelver scholar.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Because of its sometimes sensitive content, the authenticity of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". has long been polemically debated. However, by tracking its content in earlier sources, recent academic research has attributed most of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". to Ali.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The book, particularly its letter of instructions addressed at al-Ashtar,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". has served as an ideological basis for Islamic governance.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The book also includes detailed discussions about social responsibilities, emphasizing that greater responsibilities result in greater rights.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". also contains sensitive material, such as sharp criticism of Ali's predecessors in its Shaqshaqiya sermon,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and disapproval of Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr, who had revolted against Ali.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Celebrated as an example of the most eloquent Arabic,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". has significantly influenced the Arabic literature and rhetoric.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Numerous commentaries have been written about the book, including the comprehensive work of the Mu'tazilite scholar Ibn Abil-Hadid (d. 1258).Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". (lit. exalted aphorisms and pearls of speech) was compiled by Abd al-Wahid al-Amidi (d. 1116), who was either a Shafi'i jurist or a Twelver scholar. The book contains thousands of short sayings of Ali on piety and ethics.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". These aphorisms and other works attributed to Ali have considerably influenced the Islamic mysticism.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Mushaf of Ali
Mushaf of Ali is a recension of the Quran compiled by Ali, who was one of its first scribes.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". By some Shia accounts, this codex (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) of Ali was rejected for official use during the succession crisis.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Some early Shia traditions also suggest differences with the standard Uthmanid codex,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". although now the prevalent Shia view is that Ali's recension matches the Uthmanid codex, save for the order of its content.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali's codex is said to be in the possession of Muhammad al-Mahdi, who would reveal the codex (and its authoritative commentary by Ali) when he reappears.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". (lit. book of Ali) is a non-extant collection of prophetic sayings gathered by Ali. The book may have concerned matters of lawfulness (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) and unlawfulness (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".), including a detailed penal code. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". is also often linked to Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"., which is said to contain the esoteric teachings of Muhammad for his household.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Copies of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". were likely available until the early eighth century, and parts of it have survived in later Shia and Sunni works.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Other works
The Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". is a popular Shia supplication attributed to Ali, transmitted by his companion, Kumayl ibn Ziyad.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Also attributed to Ali is Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". on Islamic law, fully quoted in the Shia hadith collection Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The judicial decisions and executive orders of Ali during his caliphate have also been recorded.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Other extant works attributed to Ali are collected in Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and other Shia sources.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Contributions to Islamic sciences
The standard recitation of the Quran has been traced back to Ali,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and his written legacy is dotted with Quranic commentaries.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ibn Abbas, a leading early exegete, credited Ali with his interpretations of the Quran.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali also related several hundred prophetic hadiths.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". He is further credited with the first systematic evaluations of hadiths, and is often considered a founding figure for hadith sciences.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali is also regarded by some as the founder of Islamic theology, and his sayings contain the first rational proofs of the unity of God (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) in Islam.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In later Islamic philosophy, Ali's sayings and sermons were mined for metaphysical knowledge.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In particular, Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". is a vital source for Shia philosophical doctrines, after the Quran and Sunna.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". As a Shia imam, statements and practices attributed to Ali are widely studied in Shia Islam, where they are viewed as the continuation of prophetic teachings.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Names and titles
Eighteenth-century mirror writing in Ottoman calligraphy depicts the phrase 'Ali is the vicegerent of God' in both directions.
Ali is known by many honorifics in the Islamic tradition, some of which are especially used by Shias.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". His titles include Abu al-Hasan (lit. father of Hasan),Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". al-Murtada (lit. one with whom [God] is pleased – lit. one who is chosen and contented),Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Asad Allah (lit. lion of God),Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Haydar (lit. lion, the name initially her mother gave him),Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Amir al-Mu'minin (lit. commander of the faithful), and Imam al-Muttaqin (lit. leader of the God-fearing).Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In particular, Twelvers consider the title of Amir al-Mu'minin to be unique to Ali.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". He is also referred to as Abu Turab (lit. father of dust),Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". which might have initially been a pejorative by his enemies.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Character
Often praised for his piety and courage,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali fought to uphold his beliefs,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". but was also magnanimous in victory,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". even risking the ire of some supporters to prevent the enslavement of women.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". He also showed his grief, wept for the dead, and reportedly prayed over his enemies.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Yet Ali has also been criticized for his idealism and political inflexibility,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". for his egalitarian policies and strict justice antagonized many.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Or perhaps these qualities were also present in Muhammad,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". whom the Quran addresses as, "They wish that thou [Muhammad] might compromise and that they might compromise."Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". At any rate, these qualities of Ali, rooted in his religious beliefs, contributed to his image today for his followers as a paragon of Islamic virtues,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". particularly justice.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali is also viewed as the model Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". for Islamic chivalry (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".).Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Historical accounts about Ali are often tendentious.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". For instance, in person, Ali is described in some Sunni sources as bald, heavy-built, short-legged, with broad shoulders, hairy body, long white beard, and affected by eye inflammation.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Shia accounts about the appearance of Ali are markedly different. Those perhaps better match his reputation as a capable warrior.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Likewise, in manner, Ali is presented in some Sunni sources as rough, brusque, and unsociable.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". By contrast, Shia sources describe him as generous, gentle, and cheerful,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". to the point that the Syrian war propaganda accused him of frivolity.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Shia and Sufi sources are also replete with reports about his acts of kindness, especially to the poor.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The necessary qualities in a commander, described in a letter attributed to Ali, may have well been a portrait of himself: slow to anger, happy to pardon, kind to the weak, and severe with the strong.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". His companion, Sa'sa'a ibn Suhan, described him similarly, "He [Ali] was amongst us as one of us, of gentle disposition, intense humility, leading with a light touch, even though we were in awe of him with the kind of awe that a bound prisoner has before one who holds a sword over his head."Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Legacy
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
In Islam
Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Muslim culture.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
In the Quran
Ali regularly represented Muhammad in missions which are commonly linked to Quranic injunctions.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". For instance, the verse of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". (5:55) is a reference to when Ali gave his ring to a beggar, while praying in the mosque, according to Shia and some Sunni accounts.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". If so, then this verse gives Ali the same spiritual authority (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) as Muhammad.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In Shia sources, the Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". (5:67) spurred Muhammad to designate Ali as his successor at the Ghadir Khumm, while the Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". (5:3) subsequently announced the perfection of Islam.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The verse of purification (33:33) concerns the status of purity of the Ahl al-Bayt (lit. people of the house), which is limited to Ali, Fatima, and their two sons in Shia and some Sunni sources.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Another reference to the Ahl al-Bayt might be the verse of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". (42:23).Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". For Shias, this verse is a Quranic mandate to love and follow the Ahl al-Bayt.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
In hadith literature
Muhammad frequently praise the qualities of Ali. The most controversial such statement, "He whose Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". I am, Ali is his Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".," was delivered at the Ghadir Khumm. This gave Ali the same spiritual authority (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) as Muhammad, according to the Shia.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Elsewhere, the hadith of the position likens Muhammad and Ali to Moses and Aaron,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and thus supports the usurped right of Ali to succeed Muhammad in Shia Islam.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Other examples in standard Shia and Sunni collections of hadith include, "There is no youth braver than Ali," "No-one but a believer loves Ali, and no-one but a hypocrite (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) hates Ali," "I am from Ali, and Ali is from me, and he is the Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". (lit. patron – lit. guardian) of every believer after me," "The truth revolves around him [Ali] wherever he goes," "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".)," "Ali is with the Quran and the Quran is with Ali. They will not separate until they return to me at the [paradisal] pool."Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
In Sufism
Ali is the common source of mystical and spiritual currents within both Sunni and Shia sects of Islam.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In particular, Ali is the spiritual head of some Sufi movements,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". for Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad his esoteric knowledge and saintly authority,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". which guide believers on their journey toward God.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Nearly all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being the Naqshbandis, who reach Muhammad through Abu Bakr.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
In Sunni Islam
In Sunni Islam, Ali is venerated as a close companion of Muhammad,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". a foremost authority on the Quran and Islamic law,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and the fountainhead of wisdom in Sunni spirituality.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". When the prophet died in 632, Ali had his claims to leadership, perhaps in reference to the Ghadir Khumm,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". but he eventually accepted the temporal rule of the first three caliphs in the interest of Muslim unity.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali is portrayed in Sunni sources as a trusted advisor of the first three caliphs,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". while their conflicts with Ali are minimized,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". in line with the Sunni tendency to show accord among companions.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". As the fourth and final Rashidun caliph, Ali holds a particularly high status in Sunni Islam, although this doctrinal reverence for Ali is a recent development for which the prominent Sunni traditionist Ibn Hanbal (d. 855) is likely to be credited.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". His hierarchy of companions places Ali above those companions who fought against him, thus accommodating into Sunni doctrine the opposite sides of a moral conflict that has split the Muslim community ever since. But this Sunni hierarchy also places Ali below his predecessors, namely, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". This ordering has required Sunni reinterpretation of those prophetic sayings that explicitly elevate Ali above all companions.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
In Shia Islam
Ali takes center stage in Shia Islam:Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Arabic word shi'a itself is short for 'Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". of Ali' (lit. followers of Ali),Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". his name is incorporated into the daily call to prayer (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".),Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and he is regarded as the foremost companion of Muhammad.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The defining doctrine of Shia Islam is that Ali was the rightful successor of Muhammad through divinely-ordained designation,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". which is primarily a reference to the Ghadir Khumm.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali is thought to have inherited the political and religious authority of Muhammad, even before his ascension to the caliphate in 656.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In particular, Ali's predecessors are regarded as illegitimate rulers and usurpers of his rights.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The all-encompassing bond of loyalty between Shia Muslims and their imams (and Muhammad in his capacity as imam) is known as Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali is also thought to be endowed with the privilege of intercession on the Judgment Day.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Early on, some Shias even attributed divinity to Ali,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". but such extreme views were gradually rooted out of Shi'ism.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
In Shia belief, Ali also inherited the esoteric knowledge of Muhammad,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". for instance, in view of the prophetic hadith, "I [Muhammad] am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate."Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali is thus regarded, after Muhammad, as the interpreter, Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"., of the Quran and the sole authoritative source of its (esoteric) teachings.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Unlike Muhammad, however, Ali is not thought to have received divine revelation (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".), though he might have been guided by divine inspiration (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".).Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Verse 21:73 of the Quran is sometimes cited here, "We made them imams, guiding by Our command, and We revealed (Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".) to them the performance of good deeds, the maintenance of prayers, and the giving of Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". (alms), and they used to worship Us."Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Shia Muslims also believe in the infallibility of Ali, as with Muhammad, that is, their divine protection from sins.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Here, the verse of purification is sometimes cited.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Ali's words and deeds are therefore considered a model for the Shia community and a source for their religious injunctions.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
In Alawism
The Alawites venerate Ali, the first of the Twelve Imams, as the physical manifestation of God.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Even, the Alawite testimony of faith (shahada) translates as "there is no God but Ali".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The Alawite trinity envisions God as being composed of three distinct manifestations, Ma'na (meaning), Ism (Name) and Bab (Door); which together constitute an "indivisible trinity". Ma'na symbolises the "source and meaning of all things" in Alawite mythology. According to Alawite doctrines, Ma'na generated the Ism, which in turn built the Bab. These beliefs are closely tied to the Alawite doctrine of reincarnations of the trinity.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The final trinity of reincarnation in the Alawite trinity consists of Ali (Ma'na), Muhammad (Ism) and Salman the Persian (Bab). Alewites depict them as the sky, sun and moon respectively. Alawites deify Ali as the "last and supreme manifestation of God" who built the universe, attribute to him divine superiority, and believe that Ali created Muhammad and gave him the mission to spread Qur'anic teachings on earth.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
In other religions
In the Druze faith, Ali is considered a "minor prophet," like Plato and Socrates.[271] Even though the faith originally developed out of the Isma'ili branch of Shia Islam, the Druze are not Muslims,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and do not accept the five pillars of Islam.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In Yarsanism, a religion founded by the Kurdish mystic Sultan Sahak, Ali is thought to be an incarnation of God,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". and superior to Muhammad,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". but their image as a Ghulat (lit. exaggerators – lit. extremists) subsect of Shia Islam is incorrect.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Historiography
Much has been written about Ali in Islamic literature, second only to Muhammad.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". However, much of this material is colored by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". The primary sources about Ali are the Quran, hadiths, and other early Islamic works,Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". the most notable being The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays, attributed to a companion of Ali.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Such works were initially scarce, but this changed with the introduction of affordable paper in the Abbasid period. For instance, at least twenty-one monographs were composed on the Battle of Siffin between 750 and 950, thirteen of which were authored by the early historian Abu Mikhnaf (d. 773–774). Most of these monographs are not extant except through quotations in later collections, such as the tenth-century Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". In addition to numerous works authored by Muslims, the secondary sources about Ali include writings of Arab Christians, Hindus, and also works by Western scholars.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". When writing about Ali, early Western scholars often dismissed as fabricated the reports gathered in later periods because their authors often advanced their own Sunni or Shia partisan views. For instance, L. Caetani (d. 1935) often rejected the historical reports attributed to the pro-Ali Ibn Abbas and anti-Ali Aisha. Caetani instead preferred accounts reported without Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". by early historians like Ibn Ishaq (d. 767). By contrast, W. Madelung (d. 2023) argued that the tendentiousness of a report alone does not imply its fabrication. Madelung instead advocated for the authentication of historical reports on the basis of their compatibility with other events and figures.Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".Note: This topic belongs to "Islam" portal
Footnotes
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 Gleave 2008.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 Shah-Kazemi 2015b.
- ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 Afsaruddin & Nasr 2023.
- ↑ Momen 1985, p. 239.
- ↑ "Sahih Muslim 1532b - The Book of Transactions - كتاب البيوع - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". https://sunnah.com/muslim:1532b.
- ↑ Al-Nawawi, Yahya bin Sharaf. Tahdhibul Asma Wal Lughat,. pp. vol. 1, pg. 409. ISBN 9786338026356.
- ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 Veccia Vaglieri 2012a.
- ↑ Rubin 1995, p. 130.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Momen 1985, p. 12.
- ↑ Abbas 2021, p. 34.
- ↑ Rubin 1995, pp. 136–7.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Huart 2012a.
- ↑ Mavani 2013, p. 71, 98.
- ↑ Abbas 2021, pp. 46, 206.
- ↑ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 Poonawala 1982.
- ↑ Kassam & Blomfield 2015.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 Buehler 2014, p. 186.
- ↑ Klemm 2005, p. 186.
- ↑ Qutbuddin 2006, p. 248.
- ↑ Momen 1985, pp. 13–14.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Schmucker 2012.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Madelung 1997, p. 16.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Osman 2015, p. 110.
- ↑ Nasr et al. 2015, p. 379.
- ↑ Haider 2014, p. 35.
- ↑ Haider 2014, p. 36.
- ↑ McAuliffe 2023.
- ↑ Fedele 2018, p. 56.
- ↑ Lalani 2006, p. 29.
- ↑ Mavani 2013, p. 72.
- ↑ Bill & Williams 2002, p. 29.
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 Momen 1985, p. 13.
- ↑ Momen 1985, p. 14.
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 Shah-Kazemi 2014.
- ↑ Miskinzoda 2015, p. 69.
- ↑ Miskinzoda 2015, pp. 76–7.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 46.
- ↑ Faizer 2006.
- ↑ Donner 2010, pp. 72–3.
- ↑ Arafat 1976.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, pp. 34–9.
- ↑ Mavani 2013, p. 79.
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 43.4 43.5 Amir-Moezzi 2014.
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 Momen 1985, p. 16.
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 Mavani 2013, p. 80.
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 46.4 Veccia Vaglieri 2012b.
- ↑ Lalani 2000, p. 70–71.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, p. 34.
- ↑ Lalani 2000, p. 71.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, pp. 34–7.
- ↑ Momen 1985, p. 15.
- ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 Veccia Vaglieri 2012d.
- ↑ Jones 2009.
- ↑ Mavani 2013, p. 20.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, p. 35.
- ↑ Lalani 2011.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 20.
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 Dakake 2007, p. 45.
- ↑ Mavani 2013, p. 2.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, p. 47.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 21.
- ↑ Mavani 2013, p. 70.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, p. 46.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, pp. 44–5.
- ↑ Lalani 2006, p. 590.
- ↑ 66.0 66.1 Madelung 1997, p. 253.
- ↑ McHugo 2017, §2.IV.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, p. 41.
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 Afsaruddin 2013, p. 51.
- ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 70.3 Jafri 1979, p. 39.
- ↑ Momen 1985, p. 18.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 30–2.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 37.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 35.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 31–33.
- ↑ Momen 1985, pp. 18–9.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 36, 40.
- ↑ McHugo 2017, §1.III.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 5.
- ↑ Mavani 2013, p. 34.
- ↑ Keaney 2021, §3.1.
- ↑ 82.0 82.1 Walker 2014, p. 3.
- ↑ Lecomte 2012.
- ↑ Shaban 1971, p. 16.
- ↑ Khetia 2013, pp. 31–2.
- ↑ 86.0 86.1 Madelung 1997, p. 32.
- ↑ 87.0 87.1 Fedele 2018.
- ↑ 88.0 88.1 Madelung 1997, p. 43.
- ↑ 89.0 89.1 Jafri 1979, p. 40.
- ↑ Qutbuddin 2006, p. 249.
- ↑ Cortese & Calderini 2006, p. 8.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 41.
- ↑ 93.0 93.1 Madelung 1997, pp. 43–4.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, pp. 40–1.
- ↑ Soufi 1997, p. 86.
- ↑ Khetia 2013, p. 78.
- ↑ Abbas 2021, p. 98.
- ↑ Soufi 1997, pp. 84–5.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, pp. 17–20.
- ↑ Khetia 2013, p. 35.
- ↑ Soufi 1997, p. 84.
- ↑ Khetia 2013, p. 38.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 47.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 50.
- ↑ Mavani 2013, p. 116.
- ↑ Soufi 1997, pp. 104–105.
- ↑ 107.0 107.1 Sajjadi 2018.
- ↑ Veccia Vaglieri 2012c.
- ↑ Soufi 1997, p. 100.
- ↑ 110.0 110.1 110.2 110.3 Madelung 1997, p. 141.
- ↑ Momen 1985, pp. 19–20.
- ↑ McHugo 2017, p. 40.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 44.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 141, 253.
- ↑ Mavani 2013, p. 113–114.
- ↑ Momen 1985, p. 62.
- ↑ Mavani 2013, pp. 114, 117.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 79.
- ↑ 119.0 119.1 119.2 Anthony 2013.
- ↑ 120.0 120.1 Mavani 2013, p. 117.
- ↑ Aslan 2005, p. 122.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 42, 52–54, 213–4.
- ↑ Abbas 2021, p. 94.
- ↑ 124.0 124.1 Jafri 1979, p. 45.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 78.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 81.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, p. 50.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, pp. 47–8.
- ↑ Momen 1985, p. 20.
- ↑ Veccia Vaglieri 2012a, p. 382.
- ↑ Afsaruddin 2013, p. 32.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, p. 32.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 46.
- ↑ Glassé 2001, p. 40.
- ↑ Tabatabai 1975, p. 158.
- ↑ Abbas 2021, p. 89.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 22.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 66–7.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 62, 65.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 62–64.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 67.
- ↑ Pellat 1983.
- ↑ 143.0 143.1 Jafri 1979, p. 50.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 52.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, p. 43.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 71.
- ↑ 147.0 147.1 147.2 Jafri 1979, p. 51.
- ↑ 148.0 148.1 148.2 Momen 1985, p. 21.
- ↑ 149.0 149.1 149.2 Jafri 1979, p. 54.
- ↑ Kennedy 2016, p. 60.
- ↑ Keaney 2021, §3.4.
- ↑ Shaban 1971, pp. 62–3.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 71–2.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, pp. 52–3.
- ↑ Abbas 2021, p. 116.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 68.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, pp. 52–53, 55.
- ↑ 158.0 158.1 Madelung 1997, p. 87.
- ↑ 159.0 159.1 Veccia Vaglieri 1970, p. 67.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 84.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, p. 52.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 108, 113.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 53.
- ↑ 164.0 164.1 Madelung 1997, p. 108.
- ↑ 165.0 165.1 165.2 Hinds 1972a, p. 467.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 109.
- ↑ 167.0 167.1 167.2 Jafri 1979, p. 63.
- ↑ 168.0 168.1 Daftary 2014, p. 30.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 98.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 100–2.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 59.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 107–8.
- ↑ 173.0 173.1 173.2 173.3 Momen 1985, p. 22.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 62.
- ↑ 175.0 175.1 McHugo 2017, p. 49.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 121.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 118–9.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 128.
- ↑ 179.0 179.1 179.2 179.3 Anthony 2013, p. 31.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 111.
- ↑ Veccia Vaglieri 1970, p. 68.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 111, 119.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 122.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 123.
- ↑ 185.0 185.1 185.2 185.3 Madelung 1997, p. 112.
- ↑ 186.0 186.1 186.2 Madelung 1997, p. 127.
- ↑ Levi Della Vida & Khoury 2012.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 126.
- ↑ Hinds 1972a.
- ↑ Donner 2010, p. 152.
- ↑ 191.0 191.1 191.2 Kennedy 2016, p. 65.
- ↑ 192.0 192.1 Veccia Vaglieri 2012f.
- ↑ Donner 2010, p. 157.
- ↑ 194.0 194.1 194.2 Lapidus 2002, p. 56.
- ↑ 195.0 195.1 Ayoub 2014, p. 81.
- ↑ 196.0 196.1 196.2 Bahramian 2015.
- ↑ 197.0 197.1 Madelung 1997, pp. 142–3.
- ↑ 198.0 198.1 Momen 1985, p. 24.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, p. 70.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 143.
- ↑ 201.0 201.1 201.2 201.3 Madelung 1997, p. 147.
- ↑ 202.0 202.1 Jafri 1979, p. 64.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 144–5.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 144.
- ↑ 205.0 205.1 Shaban 1971, p. 71.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, p. 85.
- ↑ Veccia Vaglieri 1970, p. 69.
- ↑ 208.0 208.1 Shaban 1971, p. 72.
- ↑ 209.0 209.1 209.2 209.3 Donner 2010, p. 158.
- ↑ Keaney 2021, §3.5.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 72.
- ↑ Abbas 2021, p. 115.
- ↑ It was only when Yazdegerd died (A.D. 651) that some mark of Arab authority was added to the coinage (Plate II, 1; Marv, 651-52). Most early drahms have only a short Arabic religious inscription in the margin (such as besm Allāh, “in the name of God”), with the name of Yazdegerd or his predecessor Ḵosrow II, but a few have the name of ʿAbdallāh b. ʿĀmer, conqueror and governor of southern and eastern Iran. The most common name in the first two decades of Arab rule is Ḵosrow II. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arab-sasanian-coins
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 309–10.
- ↑ Momen 1985, p. 25.
- ↑ Tabatabai 1975, p. 43.
- ↑ McHugo 2017, p. 53.
- ↑ 218.0 218.1 Ayoub 2014, p. 91.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 148.
- ↑ 220.0 220.1 220.2 Tabatabai 1975, p. 45.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 105.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 272.
- ↑ 223.0 223.1 Tabatabai 1975, p. 44.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 149–50.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 89.
- ↑ 226.0 226.1 Tabatabai 1975, p. 46.
- ↑ Tabatabai 1975, p. 64.
- ↑ Nasr et al. 2015, p. 3203.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, pp. 89–90.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 150.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 77.
- ↑ Shaban 1971, p. 73.
- ↑ Shaban 1971, pp. 72–73.
- ↑ Mavani 2013, pp. 67–68.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, p. 57.
- ↑ 236.0 236.1 Haider 2014, p. 34.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, p. 60.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, pp. 251–252.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, p. 59.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 71.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, pp. 58–59.
- ↑ Dakake 2007, p. 262n30.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, p. 67.
- ↑ Abbas 2021, p. 133.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 90.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, p. 83.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, pp. 84, 90.
- ↑ Jafri 1979, pp. 55–6.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, p. 94.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, p. 95.
- ↑ 251.0 251.1 McHugo 2017, p. 64.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 264.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, pp. 105–6.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 276.
- ↑ Abbas 2021, p. 153.
- ↑ Lambton 1991, pp. xix, xx.
- ↑ Abbas 2021, p. 156.
- ↑ 258.0 258.1 Heck 2023.
- ↑ 259.0 259.1 259.2 Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 94.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, p. 84.
- ↑ Shah-Kazemi 2019, p. 115.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, p. 109.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, p. 108.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, pp. 109–10.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 227.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, pp. 111–2.
- ↑ Ayoub 2014, p. 89.
- ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 133.
- ↑ Cappucci 2014, p. 19.
- ↑ 270.0 270.1 Madelung 1997, p. 157.
- ↑ "Druze in Syria". Harvard Divinity School. Harvard University Press. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
References
Books
- Abbas, H. (2021). The Prophet's Heir: The Life of Ali ibn Abi Talib. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-25205-7.
- Historical Dictionary of Islam (Third ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. 2017. ISBN 978-1-4422-7723-6. https://archive.org/details/historical-dictionary-of-islam-third-edition/mode/2up.
- Afsaruddin, A. (2013). The First Muslims: History and Memory. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-85168-518-9. https://archive.org/details/the-first-muslims-history-and-memory-by-asma-afsaruddin/mode/2up.
- The Divine Guide In Early Shi'ism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam. State University of New York Press. 1994. ISBN 0-7914-2122-8. https://archive.org/details/thedivineguideinearlyshiism1/mode/1up.
- Kohlberg, E.; Amir-Moezzi, M.A., eds (2009). "Information, Doubts and Contradictions in Islamic Sources". Revelation and Falsification. Brill. pp. 12–23. ISBN 978-90-04-16782-7. https://archive.org/details/KohlbergMoezziREVELATIONANDFALSIFICATIONTheKitabAlQiratOfAhmadB.MuhammadAlSayyariLeiden2009./mode/2up.
- No god but God: The Origins and Evolution of Islam. Random House. 2005. ISBN 1-58836-445-3. https://archive.org/details/RezaAslanNoGodButGod.
- The Crisis of Muslim History: Religion and Politics in Early Islam. Oneworld Publications. 2014. ISBN 978-1-78074-674-6. https://archive.org/details/crisisofmuslimhi0000ayou/mode/2up.
- Bill, J.; Williams, J.A. (2002). Roman Catholics and Shi'i Muslims: Prayer, Passion, and Politics. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2689-8. https://archive.org/details/romancatholicssh0000bill/mode/2up.
- Esposito, John L.; Moosa, Matti (1995). "Alawiyyah". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. 1. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509612-6.
- Ismail, Raihan (2016). Saudi Clerics and Shī'a Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-023331-0.
- Medieval Islamic Political Thought. Edinburgh University Press. 2005. ISBN 0-7486-2194-6.
- Atwan, Abdel Bari (2015). Islamic State: The Digital Caliphate. Oakland, California, USA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-28928-4.
- Lawson, T., ed (2005). "The Rise and Decline of Taqiyya in Twelver Shi'ism". Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought. I.B. Tauris. pp. 46–63. ISBN 978-1-85043-470-2.
- Cortese, D.; Calderini, S. (2006). Women and the Fatimids in the World of Islam (First ed.). Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1732-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=Yz4pAAAAYAAJ.
- History of Islamic Philosophy. Kegan Paul International. 2006. ISBN 978-0-7103-0416-2. https://archive.org/details/byhenrycorbin/Henry Corbin - History-of-Islamic-Philosophy/mode/2up.
- Cosman, Madeleine Pelner; Jones, Linda Gale (2009). "The Nusayriyya Alawis". Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, 3-Volume Set. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0907-7.
- A History of Shi'i Islam. I.B. Tauris. 2013. ISBN 978-0-85772-333-8. https://archive.org/details/shii-heritage-series-farhad-daftary-a-history-of-shii-islam-i.-b.-tauris-2013_202104.
- Daftary, F.; Sajoo, A.B.; Jiwa, S., eds (2015). "Shi'i Communities in History". The Shi'i World: Pathways in Tradition and Modernity. I.B. Tauris. pp. 169–209. ISBN 978-1-78453-477-6.
- The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. State University of New York Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-7914-7033-6.
- The Ismā'īlīs: Their History and Doctrines (Second ed.). Cambridge University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-511-35561-5. https://archive.org/details/farhaddaftarytheismailistheirhistoryanddoctrines2ndedition/mode/.
- Donaldson, Dwight M. (1933). The Shi'ite Religion (A history of Islam in Persia and Irak). Luzac and Company. https://archive.org/details/shiitereligionhi0000dona/mode/2up.
- Donner, Fred M. (1999). "Muhammad and the Caliphate: Political History of the Islamic Empire up to the Mongol Conquest". in Esposito, J.L.. The Oxford history of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–61. ISBN 0-19-510799-3. https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john/mode/2up.
- Donner, F.M. (2010). Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-06414-0. https://archive.org/details/muhammadbeliever0000donn/mode/2up.
- The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. 2003. ISBN 0-19-512558-4. https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada/mode/2up.
- Cornell, V.J., ed (2007). "What is Sunni Islam?". Voices of Islam. 1. Praeger. pp. 185–216. ISBN 978-0-275-98733-6.
- Shi'i Islam: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-1-107-03143-2.
- Hajjar, Lisa (2005). Courting Conflict: The Israeli Military Court System in the West Bank and Gaza. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520241947.
- Halm, H. (2004). Shi'ism (Second ed.). Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-1888-0. https://archive.org/details/shiism0000halm.
- Jacobs, Martin (2014). Reorienting the East: Jewish Travelers to the Medieval Muslim World. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812290011.
- Origins and Early Development of Shi'a Islam. Longman. 1979. ISBN 0-582-78080-2. https://archive.org/details/originsearlydeve0000jafr/mode/2up?view=theater.
- Daftary, F.; Sajoo, A.; Jiwa, S., eds (2015). "Remembering Fatima and Zaynab: Gender in Perspective". The Shi'i World: Pathways in Tradition and Modernity. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85772-967-5.
- 'Uthman ibn 'Affan: Legend or Liability?. Oneworld Publications. 2021. ISBN 978-1-78607-697-7.
- Kelsay, J. (1993). Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics. Westminster/John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-25302-4. https://archive.org/details/islamwarstudyinc0000kels/mode/2up.
- The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century (Third ed.). Routledge. 2016. ISBN 978-1-138-78761-2. https://archive.org/details/the-prophet-and-the-age-of-the-caliphates-the-islamic-near-east-from-the-sixth-t/mode/2up.
- Klemm, V. (2005). "Image Formation of an Islamic Legend: Fāṭima, the Daughter of the Prophet Muḥammad". in Günther, S.. Ideas, Images, and Methods of Portrayal: Insights into Classical Arabic Literature and Islam. Brill. pp. 181–208. ISBN 978-90-474-0726-3.
- Early Shī'ī Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muḥammad al-Bāqir. I.B. Tauris. 2000. ISBN 1-85043-592-8.
- Lambton, A.K.S. (1991). Landlord and Peasant in Persia: A Study of Land Tenure and Land Revenue Administration. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-293-7.
- Lapidus, I. (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (Second ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3. https://archive.org/details/historyofislamic0000lapi_t2d2/mode/2up.
- Sunnis and Shi'a: A Political History. Princeton University Press. 2020. ISBN 978-0-691-18661-0.
- Constructive Critics, Ḥadīth Literature, and the Articulation of Sunnī Islam: The Legacy of the Generation of Ibn Sa'd, Ibn Ma'īn, and Ibn Ḥanbal. Brill. 2004. ISBN 978-90-04-13319-8.
- Madelung, W. (1997). The Succession to Muḥammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64696-3. https://archive.org/details/successiontomuam0000made/mode/2up.
- Mavani, H. (2013). Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shi'ism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-69428-2. https://archive.org/details/religiousauthori0000mava/mode/.
- McHugo, J. (2017). A Concise History of Sunnis and Shi'is. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-62616-587-8.
- McLaurin, Ronald D. (1979). The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East. Michigan University Press. ISBN 9780030525964.
- Modarressi, H. (2003). Tradition and Survival: A Bibliographical Survey of Early Shī'ite Literature. 1. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-85168-331-4.
- An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. 1985. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5.
- Moosa, Matti (1987). Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects (1st ed.). Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0-8156-2411-5.
- Nasr, S.H.; Dagli, C.K.; Dakake, M.M. et al., eds (2015). The Study Quran: A New Translation and Commentary. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-112586-7. https://archive.org/details/thestudyquran_201909/mode/2up.
- Nasr, S.H. (2006). Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6799-2.
- Nisan, Mordechai (2002). "6: Alawites: To Power and the Unknown". Minorities in the Middle East (2nd ed.). McFarland & Company, Inc.. ISBN 978-0-7864-1375-1.
- Female Personalities in the Qur'an and Sunna: Examining the Major Sources of Imami Shi'i Islam. Routledge. 2015. ISBN 978-1-315-77014-7.
- Twelve Infallible Men: The Imams and the Making of Shi'ism. Harvard University Press. 2016. ISBN 978-0-674-73707-5.
- A Chronology of Islamic History, 570–1000 CE. Ta-Ha Publishers. 1995. ISBN 1-897940-32-7. https://archive.org/details/chronologyofisla0000rahm/mode/2up.
- Robinson, C.F. (2003). Islamic Historiography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62936-2. https://archive.org/details/islamichistoriog0000robi/mode/2up.
- Rubin, U. (1995). The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muḥammad as Viewed by the Early Muslims. Darwin Press. ISBN 0-87850-110-X.
- Islamic Messianism: The Idea of the Mahdi in Twelver Shi'ism. State University of New York Press. 1981. ISBN 978-0-87395-458-7.
- Shaban, M.A. (1971). Islamic History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-08137-8. https://archive.org/details/islamichistoryne00shab.
- Justice and Remembrance: Introducing the Spirituality of Imam 'Ali. I.B. Tauris. 2007. ISBN 978-1-84511-526-5.
- Imam 'Ali: From Concise History to Timeless Mystery. Matheson Trust. 2019. ISBN 978-1-908092-18-2.
- Tabatabai, S.M.H. (1975). Shi'ite Islam. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-390-8. https://archive.org/details/ShiaInIslamCopy/mode/2up.
- Holt, P.M.; Lambton, A.K.S.; Lewis, B., eds (1970). "The Patriarchal and Umayyad Caliphates". The Cambridge History of Islam. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–103. https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0001unse_v9h2/mode/2up.
- Watt, W.M. (1960). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford University Press. https://archive.org/details/WattMuhammadAtMecca/mode/2up.
- Wain, A.; Hashim Kamali, M. (2017). The Architects of Islamic Civilisation. Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 978-967-978-990-4.
- Wellhausen, J. (1901) (in de). Die Religiös-Politischen Oppositionsparteien im Alten Islam. Weidmannsche Buchhandlung. OCLC 453206240. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358135.
- The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall. University of Calcutta. 1927. OCLC 752790641. https://archive.org/details/arabkingdomandit029490mbp.
- After the Prophet: The Epic Story of the Shia-Sunni Split in Islam. Doubleday. 2009. ISBN 978-0-385-53209-9. https://archive.org/details/aftertheprophettheepicstoryoftheshiasunnisplitinislampdfdrive.com/mode/2up.
- Nasr, S.H.; Dagli, C.K.; Dakake, M.M. et al., eds (2015). The Study Quran: A New Translation and Commentary. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-112586-7. https://archive.org/details/thestudyquran_201909/mode/2up.
- Shi'i Islam: Origins, Faith and Practices. Islamic College for Advanced Studies Press. 2003. ISBN 1-904063-11-X.
- Daftary, F.; Miskinzoda, G., eds (2014). "The Evolution of al-Qādi al-Nu'man's Theory of Ismaili Jurisprudence as Reflected in the Chronology of his Works on Jurisprudence". The Study of Shi'i Islam: History, Theology, and Law. I.B. Tauris. pp. 295–351. ISBN 978-1-78076-506-8.
- Daftary, F.; Sajoo, A.B.; Jiwa, S., eds (2015a). "Imam Ali". The Shi'i World: Pathways in Tradition and Modernity. I.B. Tauris. pp. 33–55. ISBN 978-1-78453-477-6.
Encyclopedias
Encyclopaedia Iranica
- "Eschatology iii. Imami Shi'ism". Encyclopaedia Iranica. VIII/6. 1998. pp. 575–581. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eschatology-iii.
- Madelung, W. (2003). "Ḥasan b. 'Ali b. Abi Ṭāleb". Encyclopaedia Iranica. pp. 26–28. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hasan-b-ali.
- "Abū Lo'Lo'a". Encyclopaedia Iranica. I/3. 1983. pp. 333–334. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abu-loloa-a-persian-slave-of-mogira-b.
- "'Alī b. Abī Ṭāleb I. Life". Encyclopaedia Iranica (Online ed.). 1982. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ali-b-abi-taleb#pt1.
Encyclopaedia of Islam
- Algar, Hamid (1994). "EHL-i HAK" (in Turkish). İslâm Ansiklopedisi. 10. pp. 513–515.
- Fleet, K.; Krämer, G.; Matringe, D. et al., eds (2014). "Ghadīr Khumm". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419. ISBN 978-90-04-26961-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27419.
- Daftary, F. (2014). "'Alids". in Fleet, K.; Krämer, G.; Matringe, D. et al.. Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26329. ISBN 978-90-04-17137-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26329.
- Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al., eds (2012). "Nahd̲j̲ al-Balāg̲h̲a". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5752. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5752.
- Gibb, H.A.R. (2012). "Amīr al-Mu'minīn". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0617. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0617.
- Gleave, R.M. (2008). "'Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib". in Fleet; Krämer, G.; Matringe, D. et al.. Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26324. ISBN 978-90-04-17137-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26324.
- Houtsma, M.Th.; Arnold, T.W.; Basset, R. et al., eds (2012a). "'Ali". Encyclopaedia of Islam (First ed.). doi:10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_COM_0020. ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_COM_0020.
- Houtsma, M.Th.; Arnold, T.W.; Basset, R. et al., eds (2012b). "'Alids". Encyclopaedia of Islam (First ed.). doi:10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_0645. ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_0645.
- Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al., eds (2012). "Ṣiffīn". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7018. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7018.
- Lecomte, G. (2012). "Al-Saḳīfa". in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al.. Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0980. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0980.
- Levi Della Vida, G.; Khoury, R.G. (2012). "'Ut̲h̲mān b. 'Affān". in Bearman; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al.. Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1315. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1315.
- Levi Della Vida, G. (2012). "K̲h̲ārid̲j̲ites". in Bearman; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al.. Encyclopedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0497. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0497.
- Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al., eds (2012). "'Alids". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0543. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0543.
- Madelung, W. (2012). "S̲h̲ī'a". in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al.. Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6920. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6920.
- Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al., eds (2012). "Mubāhala". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5289. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5289.
- Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2012g). "Ibn Muld̲j̲am". in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al.. Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0339. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0339.
- Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2012f). "al-D̲j̲amal". in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al.. Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1962. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_1962.
- Veccia Vaglieri, L. (2012b). "G̲h̲adīr K̲h̲umm". in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al.. Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2439. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2439.
- Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al., eds (2012a). "'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0046. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0046.
- Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al., eds (2012d). "Fāṭima". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0217. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0217.
- Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al., eds (2012e). "(al-)Ḥasan b. 'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0272. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0272.
- Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al., eds (2012c). "Fadak". Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2218. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2218.
- Watt, M.W. (1986). "Abū Bakr". in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E. et al.. Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0165. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0165.
Encyclopaedia Islamica
- Daftary, F., ed (2015). "'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 11. The Iconography of Imam 'Alī in Persianate Islamic Art". Encyclopaedia Islamica. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126.
- Daftary, Farhad, ed (2015). "'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 3. Caliphate". Encyclopaedia Islamica. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126.
- Daftary, F., ed (2015). "'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 1. Names and Titles". Encyclopaedia Islamica. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126.
- Daftary, F., ed (2015). "'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 6. Mysticism (Taṣawwuf and 'Irfān)". Encyclopaedia Islamica. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126.
- Pakatchi, A. (2015). "'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 4. Qur'ān and Ḥadīth Sciences". in Daftary, F.. Encyclopaedia Islamica. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126.
- Sajjadi, S. (2018). "Fadak". in Daftary, F.. Encyclopaedia Islamica. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_036126.
- Daftary, F., ed (2015b). "'Alī b. Abī Ṭālib 2. Biography". Encyclopaedia Islamica. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26324. ISBN 978-90-04-17137-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26324.
Others
- Afsaruddin, A. (2006). "Ghadir Khumm". in Leaman, O.. The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 218. ISBN 9-78-0-415-32639-1. https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/218/mode/2up.
- Afsaruddin, A.; Nasr, S.H. (2023). "Ali". Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ali-Muslim-caliph.
- Anthony, S.W. (2013). "Ali b. Abi Talib". in Bowering, G.. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. pp. 30–32. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0. https://archive.org/details/princetonencyclo0000unse/.
- Fitzpatrick, C.; Walker, A.H., eds (2014). "Fatima". Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopaedia of the Prophet of God. 1. ABC-CLIO. pp. 182–187. ISBN 978-1-61069-178-9. https://archive.org/details/muhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1/mode/2up.
- Fitzpatrick, C.; Walker, A.H., eds (2014). "'A'isha". Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God. 1. ABC-CLIO. pp. 18–20. ISBN 978-1-61069-178-9. https://archive.org/details/muhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1/page/18/mode/2up.
- Faizer, R. (2006). "Sira". in Meri, J.W.. Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 754. ISBN 0-415-96692-2. https://archive.org/details/MedievalIslamicCivilizationAnEncyclopedia_201603/page/n797/mode/2up?q="2:207".
- Fadel, M. (2013). "Arbitration". in Bowering, G.. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0. https://archive.org/details/princetonencyclo0000unse/.
- de-Gaia, S., ed (2018). "Fatima". Encyclopedia of Women in World Religions. ABC-CLIO. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-4408-4850-6.
- Glassé, C., ed (2001). "'Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (598-40/598-661)". The New Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. pp. 39–41. ISBN 0-7591-0189-2. https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas/page/39/mode/2up.
- Gleave, R. (2004). "Imamate". in Martin, R.C.. Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world. 1. Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 350–351. ISBN 0-02-865604-0.
- Heck, P.L. (2023). "Politics and the Quran". in Pink, J.. Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān. doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00149.
- Netton, I.R., ed (2008). "'Ali ibn Abi Talib". Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion. Routledge. pp. 43–45. ISBN 978-0-700-71588-6.
- Campo, J.E., ed (2009). "Ali ibn Abi Talib". Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts on File. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1. https://archive.org/details/encyclopedia-of-islam_202006/page/32/mode/2up.
- Lalani, A.R. (2006). "'Ali ibn Abi Talib". in Leaman, O.. The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 28–32. ISBN 9780415326391. https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/28/mode/2up.
- Leaman, O., ed (2006). "Ahl al-Bayt". The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1. https://archive.org/details/thequrananencyclopediaed.byoliverleaman_201909/page/n709/mode/2up.
- Pink, J., ed (2023). "Fāṭima". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān. doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00153.
- Meri, J.W., ed (2006). "Fatima (al-Zahra') bint Muhammad". Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. 1. Routledge. pp. 248–250. ISBN 0-415-96692-2. https://archive.org/details/MedievalIslamicCivilizationAnEncyclopedia_201603/page/n291/mode/2up.
- Meri, J.W., ed (2006). "'Ali ibn Abi Talib". Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. 1. Routledge. pp. 36–37. ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0. https://archive.org/details/MedievalIslamicCivilizationAnEncyclopedia_201603/page/n79/mode/2up.
- Shah-Kazemi, R. (2014). "'Ali ibn Abi Talib". in Fitzpatrick, C.; Walker, A.H.. Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopaedia of the Prophet of God. 1. ABC-CLIO. pp. 182–187. ISBN 978-1-610-69177-2. https://archive.org/details/muhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1/mode/2up.
- Martin, R.C., ed (2004). "'Ali". Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. 1. Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 35–38. ISBN 0028656040. https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0001unse/page/34/mode/2up.
- Thomas, D. (2008). "Nahj al-balagha". in Netton, I.R.. Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilisation and Religion. Routledge. pp. 477–478. ISBN 978-0-7007-1588-6. https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofis0000unse_h2t8/mode/2up.
- Fitzpatrick, C.; Walker, A.H., eds (2014). "Abu Bakr al-Siddiq". Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopaedia of the Prophet of God. 1. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1–4. ISBN 9781610691789. https://archive.org/details/muhammadinhistor0000unse_h4s1/mode/2up.
Journals and theses
- Arafat, W.N. (1976). "New Light on the Story of Banū Qurayẓa and the Jews of Medina". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 108 (2): 100–107.
- Hinds, M. (1971). "Kûfan Political Alignments and Their Background in the Mid-Seventh Century A.D.". International Journal of Middle East Studies 2 (4): 346–367. doi:10.1017/S0020743800001306.
- "The Murder of the Caliph 'Uthman". International Journal of Middle East Studies 3 (4): 450–469. 1972a. doi:10.1017/S0020743800025216.
- "The Siffin Arbitration Agreement". Journal of Semitic Studies 17 (1): 93–129. 1972b. doi:10.1093/jss/17.1.93.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
- Lalani, A. (2011). "Ghadir Khumm". Islamic Studies. doi:10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0105.
- Miskinzoda, G. (2015). "The Significance of the ḥadīth of the Position of Aaron for the Formulation of the Shī'ī Doctrine of Authority". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 78 (1): 67–82. doi:10.1017/S0041977X14001402.
- Modarressi, H. (1993). "Early Debates on the Integrity of the Qur'ān: A Brief Survey". Studia Islamica 77 (77): 5–39. doi:10.2307/1595789. https://doi.org/10.2307/1595789.
- "'Alī and Mu'āwiah: The Rise of the Umayyad Caliphate 656–661". Acta Orientalia 23: 157–196. 1958. doi:10.5617/ao.5297.
- Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
Further reading
- Hamidullah, Muhammad (1988). The Prophet's Establishing a State and His Succession. University of California. ISBN 978-969-8016-22-7.
- Merrick, James L. (2005). The Life and Religion of Mohammed as Contained in the Sheeah Traditions. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4179-5536-7.
|- ! colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;" | Political offices |-
| colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFD700; text-align:center;" |
Born: c. 600 Died: c. 28 January 661
|- style="text-align:center;"
|style="width:30%;" rowspan="1"|Preceded by
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
| style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"| Caliph of Islam
4th Rashidun Caliph
656–661
| style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"| Succeeded by
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
|-
|- style="text-align:center;"
|style="width:30%;" rowspan="4"|Preceded by
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
as Final prophet
| style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"| Twelver Imam
Zaidi Imam
Ismaili Imam
Alevi Imam
Alawite Imam
632–661
| style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="2"| Succeeded by
Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
as Imam
|-
|}Template:Rashidun Caliphs
Categories: [Islamic philosophers]
↧ Download as ZWI file | Last modified: 11/06/2025 04:07:03 | 10 views
☰ Source: https://handwiki.org/wiki/Biography:Ali | License: CC BY-SA 3.0
KSF