Languages Of Russia

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Short description: Overview of the languages spoken in Russia

Template:Languages of Of all the languages of Russia, Russian, the most widely spoken language, is the only official language at the national level. There are 26 languages which are considered official languages in various regions of Russia, along with Russian. There are over 100 minority languages spoken in Russia today.[1] From 2020, amendments to the Russian Constitution stipulate that Russian is the language of the "state forming people". With president Vladimir Putin's signing of an executive order on 3 July 2020 to insert the amendments into the constitution, they took effect on 4 July 2020.[2]

History

Russian lost its status in many of the new republics that arose following the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union. In Russia, however, the dominating status of the Russian language continued. Today, 97% of the public school students of Russia receive their education only or mostly in Russian, even though Russia is made up of approximately 80% ethnic Russians.[citation needed]

Russification

On 19 June 2018, the Russian State Duma adopted a bill that made education in all languages but Russian optional, overruling previous laws by ethnic autonomies, and reducing instruction in minority languages to only two hours a week.[3][4][5] This bill has been likened by some commentators, such as in Foreign Affairs, to a policy of Russification.[3]

When the bill was still being considered, advocates for the minorities warned that the bill could endanger their languages and traditional cultures.[5][6] The law came after a lawsuit in the summer of 2017, where a Russian mother claimed that her son had been "materially harmed" by learning the Tatar language, while in a speech Vladimir Putin argued that it was wrong to force someone to learn a language that is not their own.[5] The later "language crackdown" in which autonomous units were forced to stop mandatory hours of native languages was also seen as a move by Putin to "build identity in Russian society".[5]

Protests and petitions against the bill by either civic society, groups of public intellectuals or regional governments came from Tatarstan (with attempts for demonstrations suppressed),[7] Chuvashia,[5] Mari El,[5] North Ossetia,[7][8] Kabardino-Balkaria,[7][9] the Karachays,[7] the Kumyks,[7][10] the Avars,[7][11] Chechnya,[3][12] and Ingushetia.[13][3] Although the "hand-picked" Duma representatives from the Caucasus did not oppose the bill,[3] it prompted a large outcry in the North Caucasus[7] with representatives from the region being accused of cowardice.[3] The law was also seen as possibly destabilizing, threatening ethnic relations and revitalizing the various North Caucasian nationalist movements.[3][5][7] The International Circassian Organization called for the law to be rescinded before it came into effect.[14] Twelve of Russia's ethnic autonomies, including five in the Caucasus called for the legislation to be blocked.[3][15]

On 10 September 2019, Udmurt activist Albert Razin self-immolated in front of the regional government building in Izhevsk as it was considering passing the controversial bill to reduce the status of the Udmurt language.[16] Between 2002 and 2010 the number of Udmurt speakers dwindled from 463,000 to 324,000.[17] Other languages in the Volga region recorded similar declines in the number of speakers; between the 2002 and 2010 censuses the number of Mari speakers declined from 254,000 to 204,000[6] while Chuvash recorded only 1,042,989 speakers in 2010, a 21.6% drop from 2002.[18] This is attributed to a gradual phasing out of indigenous language teaching both in the cities and rural areas while regional media and governments shift exclusively to Russian.

In the North Caucasus, the law came after a decade in which educational opportunities in the indigenous languages was reduced by more than 50%, due to budget reductions and federal efforts to decrease the role of languages other than Russian.[3][7] During this period, numerous indigenous languages in the North Caucasus showed significant decreases in their numbers of speakers even though the numbers of the corresponding nationalities increased, leading to fears of language replacement.[7][19] The numbers of Ossetian, Kumyk and Avar speakers dropped by 43,000, 63,000 and 80,000 respectively.[7] As of 2018, it has been reported that the North Caucasus is nearly devoid of schools that teach in mainly their native languages, with the exception of one school in North Ossetia, and a few in rural regions of Dagestan; this is true even in largely monoethnic Chechnya and Ingushetia.[7] Chechen and Ingush are still used as languages of everyday communication to a greater degree than their North Caucasian neighbours, but sociolinguistics argue that the current situation will lead to their degradation relative to Russian as well.[7]

In 2020, a set of amendments to the Russian constitution was approved by the State Duma[20] and later the Federation Council.[21] One of the amendments is to enshrine Russian as the “language of the state-forming nationality” and the Russian people as the ethnic group that created the nation.[22] The amendment has been met with criticism from Russia's minorities[23][24] who argue that it goes against the principle that Russia is a multinational state and will only marginalize them further.[25]

Official languages

Although Russian is the only federally official language of Russia , there are several other officially recognized languages within Russia's various constituencies – article 68 of the Constitution of Russia only allows the various republics of Russia to establish official (state) languages other than Russian. This is a list of the languages that are recognized as official (state) in constitutions of the republics of Russia, as well as the number of native speakers according mostly to the 2010 Census or more recent ones:[26]

Language Language family Federal subject(s) Speakers in Russia[26] Source
Abaza Northwest Caucasian  Karachay-Cherkessia 37,831 (2010 Census-2014)[27][28] [29]
Adyghe Northwest Caucasian  Adygea 128,000 (2015)[30] [31]
Avar Northeast Caucasian  Dagestan 800,000 (2010 Census)[32] [33]
Altai Turkic  Altai Republic 55,720 (2010 Census) [34][35]
Bashkir Turkic  Bashkortostan 1,152,404 (2010 Census)[36] [37] see also regional law
Buryat Mongolic  Buryatia 265,000 (2010 Census)[38] [39]
Chechen Northeast Caucasian  Chechnya
 Dagestan 		1,354,705 (2010 Census) [40]
Chuvash Turkic  Chuvashia 1,042,989 (2010 Census) [41]
Crimean Tatar Turkic Template:Country data Republic of Crimea[lower-alpha 1] 308,000 (2010 Census)

228,000 (2019)[lower-alpha 1][42]

[43]
Erzya Uralic  Mordovia 36,726 (2010 Census) [44]
Ingush Northeast Caucasian  Ingushetia 305,868 (2010 Census) [45]
Kabardian Northwest Caucasian  Kabardino-Balkaria
 Karachay-Cherkessia 		590,000 (2010 Census) [29][46]
Kalmyk Mongolic  Kalmykia 80,546 (2010 Census) [47]
Karachay-Balkar Turkic  Kabardino-Balkaria
 Karachay-Cherkessia 		305,364 (2010 Census) [29][46]
Khakas Turkic  Khakassia 43,000 (2010 Census) [48]
Komi-Zyrian Uralic  Komi Republic 160,000 (2010 Census) [49]
Hill Mari, Meadow Mari Uralic  Mari El 470,000 (2012)[50] [51]
Moksha Uralic  Mordovia 130,000 (2010 Census) [44]
Nogai Turkic  Karachay-Cherkessia
 Dagestan 		87,119 (2010 Census) [29]
Ossetian Indo-European (Iranian)  North Ossetia–Alania 451,431 (2010 Census) [52]
Tatar Turkic  Tatarstan 4,280,718 (2010 Census) [53]
Tuvan Turkic  Tuva 280,000 (2010) [54]
Udmurt Uralic  Udmurtia 324,338 (2010 Census) [55]
Ukrainian Indo-European (Slavic) Template:Country data Republic of Crimea[lower-alpha 1] 1,129,838 (2010 Census) [43]
Yakut Turkic Template:Country data Sakha 450,140 (2010 Census) [56]
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Annexed by Russia in 2014; recognized as a part of Ukraine by most of the UN Member States.

The Constitution of Dagestan defines "Russian and the languages of the peoples of Dagestan" as the state languages,[57] though no comprehensive list of the languages was given.[citation needed][dubious – discuss] 14 of these languages (including Russian) are literary written languages; therefore they are commonly considered to be the official languages of Dagestan. These are, besides Russian, the following: Aghul, Avar, Azerbaijani, Chechen, Dargwa, Kumyk, Lak, Lezgian, Nogai, Rutul, Tabasaran, Tat and Tsakhur. All of these, except Russian, Chechen and Nogai, are official only in Dagestan and in no other Russian republic. In the project of the "Law on the languages of the Republic of Dagestan" 32 languages are listed; however, this law project never came to life.[58]

Karelia is the only republic of Russia with Russian as the only official language.[59] However, there exists the special law about state support and protection of the Karelian, Vepsian and Finnish languages in the republic, see next section.[60]

Other recognized languages

The Government of the Republic of Bashkortostan adopted the Law on the Languages of Nations, which is one of the regional laws aimed at protecting and preserving minority languages.[61][62][63] The main provisions of the law include General Provisions, Language names of geographic regions. objects and inscriptions, road and other signs, liability for violations of Bashkortostan in the languages of Bashkortostan. In the Republic of Bashkortostan, equality of languages is recognized. Equality of languages is a combination of the rights of peoples and people to preserve and fully develop their native language, freedom of choice and use of the language of communication. The writing of names of geographical objects and the inscription, road and other signs along with the state language of the Republic of Bashkortostan can be done in the languages of Bashkortostan in the territories where they are concentrated. Similar laws were adopted in Mari El, Tatarstan, Udmurtia, Khakassia and the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug.

The federal law "On the languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation"[64] allows the federal subjects to establish additionally official languages in the areas where minority groups live. The following 15 languages benefit from various degrees of recognition in various regions under this law:

  • Buryat in the Agin-Buryat Okrug
  • Chukchi in Sakha
  • Dolgan in Sakha
  • Even in Sakha
  • Evenki in Sakha
  • Finnish in Karelia
  • Karelian in Karelia
  • Kazakh in Altai
  • Khanty in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug and the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug
  • Komi-Permyak in the Komi-Permyak Okrug
  • Mansi in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug
  • Nenets in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, the Nenets Autonomous Okrug and the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug
  • Selkup in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug
  • Veps in Karelia
  • The Yukaghir languages in Sakha

Migrant languages

As a result of mass migration to Russia from the former USSR republics (especially from the Caucasus and Central Asia) many non-indigenous languages are spoken by migrant workers. For example, in 2014 2.4 million Uzbek citizens and 1.2 million Tajik citizens entered Russia.[65]

For comparison, Russian citizens with ethnicities matching these of home countries of migrant workers of are much lower (from 2010 Russian Census, in thousands):

Armenian 830
Azerbaijani 515
Kazakh 472
Uzbek 245
Kyrgyz 247
Tajik 177
Georgian 102
Romanian 90

Endangered languages in Russia

There are many endangered languages in Russia. Some are considered to be near extinction and put on the list of endangered languages in Russia, and some may have gone extinct since data was last reported. On the other hand, some languages may survive even with few speakers.

Some languages have doubtful data, like Serbian whose information in the Ethnologue is based on the 1959 census.

Languages near extinction

Most numbers are according to Michael Krauss, 1995. Given the time that has passed, languages with extremely few speakers might be extinct today. Since 1994, Kerek, Aleut, Medny Aleut, Akkala Sami and Yugh languages have become extinct.

  • Enets (70)
  • Ingrian
  • Negidal
  • Orok (30–82)
  • Sami, Ter (2)
  • Tofalar (25–30)
  • Udege (100)
  • Votic (8, 60-non native)
  • Ket (20 speakers) (2019)
  • Yukaghir, Northern (30–150)
  • Yukaghir, Southern (10–50)
  • Yupik

Foreign languages

Sign at TyumenNIIgiprogas headquarters reflecting the international nature of the oil industry: it is in Russian, Ukrainian, English, German, Polish, French, Hebrew, Georgian, Chinese and Tatar.

According to the various studies made in 2005-2008 by Levada Center[66] 15% of Russians know a foreign language. From those who claim knowledge of at least one language:

"Can speak freely":
English 80%
German 16%
French 4%
Turkish 2%
Others 9%
From 1775 respondents aged 15-29, November 2006
"Know enough to read newspapers":
English 44%
German 15%
Ukrainian, Belarusian and other Slavic languages 19%
Other European languages 10%
All others 29%
From 2100 respondents of every age, January 2005

Knowledge of at least one foreign language is predominant among younger and middle-aged population. Among aged 18–24 38% can read and "translate with a dictionary", 11% can freely read and speak. Among aged 25–39 these numbers are 26% and 4% respectively.

Knowledge of a foreign language varies among social groups. It is most appreciable (15-18%) in big cities with 100,000 and more inhabitants, while in Moscow it rises up to 35%. People with higher education and high economical and social status are most expected to know a foreign language.

The new study by Levada-Center in April 2014[67] reveals such numbers:

Can speak freely at least one language:
English 11%
German 2%
Spanish 2%
Ukrainian 1%
French <1%
Chinese <1%
Others 2%
Can speak a foreign language but with difficulty 13%
Do not speak a foreign Language at all 70%
From 1602 respondents from 16 and older, April 2014

The age and social profiling are the same: knowledge of a foreign language is predominant among the young or middle-aged population with higher education and high social status and who live in big cities.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, French was a common language among upper class Russians. The impetus came from Peter the Great's orientation of Russia towards Europe and accelerated after the French Revolution . After the Russians fought France in the Napoleonic Wars, Russia became less inclined towards French.[68]

In 2015, a survey taken in all federal subjects of Russia showed that 70% of Russians could not speak a foreign language. Almost 30% could speak English, 6% could speak German, 1% could speak French, 1% could speak Spanish, 1% could speak Arabic and 0.5% could speak another language.[69]

Language % of speakers in Russia (2003) % of speakers in Russia (2015) Change (%)
English 16 30 Increase14
German 7 6 Decrease1
French 1 1 Steady

English

[69]

Knowledge Percentage
Can speak English to a degree 30%
Can read and translate using a dictionary 20%
Can understand colloquial language 7%
Can speak very fluently 3%

Languages of education

Every year the Russian Ministry of Education and Science publishes statistics on the languages used in schools. In 2014/2015 the absolute majority[70] (13.1 million or 96%) of 13.7 million Russian students used Russian as a medium of education. Around 1.6 million or 12% students studied their (non-Russian) native language as a subject. The most studied languages are Tatar, Chechen and Chuvash with 347,000, 253,000 and 107,000 students respectively.

The most studied foreign languages in 2013/2014 were (students in thousands):

English 11,194.2
German 1,070.5
French 297.8
Spanish 20.1
Chinese 14.9
Arabic 3.4
Italian 2.9
Others 21.7

See also

  • Demography of Russia
  • List of languages of Russia
  • Languages of the Caucasus
  • Russian Academy of Sciences, the language regulator in Russia

References

  1. ↑ "Russia - Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette". Kwintessential.co.uk. http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/russia-country-profile.html. 
  2. ↑ Language of “state forming people”.Putin signing amendments into law
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 "Putin's Plan to Russify the Caucasus". Foreign Affairs. 1 August 2018. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russia-fsu/2018-08-01/putins-plan-russify-caucasus. 
  4. ↑ "Gosduma prinyala chtenii zakonoproekt ob izuchen'i rodnyix yez'ikov". RIA Novosti. 19 June 2018. https://ria.ru/society/20180619/1523019471.html. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 "Russian minorities fear for languages amid new restrictions". Deutsche Welle. 5 December 2017. https://www.dw.com/en/russian-minorities-fear-for-languages-amid-new-restrictions/a-41639610. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Coalson, Robert; Lyubimov, Dmitry; Alpaut, Ramazan (2018-06-20). "A Common Language: Russia's 'Ethnic' Republics See Language Bill As Existential Threat" (in en). https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-language-bill-ethnic-republics-existential-threat/29306974.html. 
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 Kaplan, Mikail (31 May 2018). "How Russian state pressure on regional languages is sparking civic activism in the North Caucasus". https://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/mikail-kaplan/pressure-on-regional-languages-is-sparking-civic-activism-in-the-north-Caucasus. 
  8. ↑ "Тамерлан Камболов попросит Путина защитить осетинский язык". Gradus. 3 August 2018. http://gradus.pro/tamerlan-kambolov-poprosit-putina-zashhitit/. 
  9. ↑ "Кабардино-Балкария против законопроекта о добровольном обучении родным языкам.". 23 April 2018. http://zapravakbr.com/index.php/30-uncategorised/1002-2015-05-18-11-13-59tr-28549231. 
  10. ↑ "Кумыки потребовали снять с повестки дня Госдумы законопроект о добровольном изучении языков". Idel Real. 10 May 2018. https://www.idelreal.org/a/29218807.html. 
  11. ↑ "В Хасавюрте прошёл митинг в поддержку преподавания родного языка". Idel Real. 15 May 2018. https://www.idelreal.org/a/29227865.html. 
  12. ↑ "Чеченские педагоги назвали факультативное изучение родного языка неприемлемым". Kavkaz Uzel. 30 July 2018. http://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/322396. 
  13. ↑ "Общественники Ингушетии: законопроект о языках – "циничная дискриминация народов"". Kavkaz Realii. 12 June 2018. https://www.kavkazr.com/a/29284554.html. 
  14. ↑ "Международная черкесская ассоциация призвала заблокировать закон о родных языках". Kavkaz Uzel. 5 July 2018. http://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/322653. 
  15. ↑ "Представители нацреспублик России назвали закон о родных языках антиконституционным". Kavkaz Uzel. 1 July 2018. http://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/322440. 
  16. ↑ "Russian Scholar Dies From Self-Immolation While Protesting to Save Native Language" (in en). 2019-09-10. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/09/10/russian-scholar-dies-from-self-immolation-during-protest-to-save-native-language-a67229. 
  17. ↑ "Man Dies After Self-Immolation Protest Over Language Policies in Russia's Udmurtia" (in en). 2019-09-10. https://www.rferl.org/a/man-sets-himself--fire-russia--udmurtia-language-protest-against-language-bill/30156654.html. 
  18. ↑ Blinov, Alexander (10 June 2022). "Alexander Blinov: "In state structures, the Chuvash language most often performs a symbolic function"" (in ru). https://m.realnoevremya.ru/articles/252904-obzor-koordinatora-chuvashskoy-iniciativnoy-gruppy-haval. 
  19. ↑ "Живой на бумаге". 23 November 2016. https://www.kavkazr.com/a/pochemu-karachaevskogo-yazyka-net/28135339.html. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  20. ↑ Seddon, Max; Foy, Henry (10 March 2020). "Kremlin denies Russia constitution rewrite is Putin power grab". https://www.ft.com/content/fc707884-5fcc-11ea-b0ab-339c2307bcd4. 
  21. ↑ "Russian Lawmakers Adopt Putin's Sweeping Constitutional Amendments" (in en). 2020-03-11. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/03/11/russian-lawmakers-adopt-putins-sweeping-constitutional-amendments-a69584. 
  22. ↑ Budryk, Zack (2020-03-03). "Putin proposes gay marriage constitutional ban in Russia" (in en). https://thehill.com/policy/international/russia/485745-putin-proposes-constitutional-ban-gay-marriage-in-russia. 
  23. ↑ Jalilov, Rustam (11 March 2020). "Amendment to state-forming people faces criticism in the North Caucasus" (in ru). https://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/346920/. 
  24. ↑ Alpout, Ramadan (10 March 2020). ""We are again foreigners, but now officially." Amendment to the constituent people" (in ru). https://www.idelreal.org/a/30479590.html. 
  25. ↑ Rakhmatullin, Timur (5 March 2020). "Who to benefit from 'Russian article' in the Constitution?" (in en). https://realnoevremya.com/articles/4294-who-to-benefit-from-russian-article-in-the-constitution. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 "2010 All-Russian Population Census". Federal State Statistics Service: 142–143. http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-05.pdf. 
  27. ↑ "The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire". https://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/abazians.shtml. 
  28. ↑ "Abaza" (in en). 2019-11-19. https://www.ethnologue.com/19/language/abq/. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 "Конституция Карачаево-Черкесской Республики от 5 марта 1996 г. / Глава 1. Основы конституционного строя (ст.ст. 1-13)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_karach/chapter/10ed0f917186039eb157d3ba4f962ee5/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  30. ↑ "Adyghe" (in en). https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ady. 
  31. ↑ "Конституция Республики Адыгея (принята на XIV сессии Законодательного Собрания (Хасэ) - Парламента Республики Адыгея 10 марта 1995 года) / Глава 1. Права и свободы человека и гражданина (ст.ст. 18 - 46)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_adig/chapter/53f89421bbdaf741eb2d1ecc4ddb4c33/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  32. ↑ "Avar" (in en). 2019-11-19. https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/ava/. 
  33. ↑ "Конституция Республики Дагестан (принята Конституционным Собранием 10 июля 2003 г.)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_dagest/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  34. ↑ "Конституция Республики Алтай (Основной Закон) (принята 7 июня 1997 г.) / Глава I. Общие положения (ст.ст. 22-26)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_altai/chapter/53f89421bbdaf741eb2d1ecc4ddb4c33/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  35. ↑ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ru). Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation. http://zakon.scli.ru/ru/legal_texts/legislation_RF/printable.php?do4=document&id4=d2599158-01ed-47a8-8227-3057d6dbed48.Error:+no+|title=+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Ministry+of+Justice+of+the+Russian+Federation&rft_id=http://zakon.scli.ru/ru/legal_texts/legislation_RF/printable.php?do4=document&id4=d2599158-01ed-47a8-8227-3057d6dbed48&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Social:Languages_of_Russia"> 
  36. ↑ "Bashkir" (in en). 2019-11-19. https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/bak/. 
  37. ↑ "Конституция Республики Башкортостан от 24 декабря 1993 г. N ВС-22/15 / Глава 1. Основы конституционного строя Республики Башкортостан (ст.ст. 1-16)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_bashkor/chapter/f533d167513979e2d229fe32a1897b73/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  38. ↑ "Buryat" (in en). 2019-11-19. https://www.ethnologue.com/19/language/bua/. 
  39. ↑ "Конституция Республики Бурятия (принята Верховным Советом Республики Бурятия 22 февраля 1994 г.) / Глава 3. Государственно-правовой статус Республики Бурятия (ст.ст. 60-68)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_buryat/chapter/3e22e51c74db8e0b182fad67b502e640/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  40. ↑ "Конституция Чеченской Республики (принята 23 марта 2003 г.) / Глава 1. Основы конституционного строя (ст.ст. 1 - 13)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_chech/chapter/baf8d0298b9a3923e3794eecbe3d1996/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  41. ↑ "Конституция Чувашской Республики (принята Государственным Советом Чувашской Республики 30 ноября 2000 г.) / Глава 1. Основы конституционного строя Чувашской Республики (ст.ст. 1 - 13)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_chuvash/chapter/53f89421bbdaf741eb2d1ecc4ddb4c33/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  42. ↑ Tyers, Francis M.; Washington, Jonathan N.; Kavitskaya, Darya; Gökırmak, Memduh (2019). "A Biscriptual Morphological Transducer for Crimean Tatar". Proceedings of the Workshop on Computational Methods for Endangered Languages. doi:10.33011/computel.v1i.423. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 "Constitution of the Republic of Crimea" (in ru). Article 10. State Council, Republic of Crimea. 11 April 2014. http://www.rg.ru/printable/2014/05/06/krim-konstituciya-reg-dok.html. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "Конституция Республики Мордовия (принята 21 сентября 1995 г.) / Глава 1. Основы конституционного строя Республики Мордовия (п.п. 1 - 13)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_mordov/chapter/1cafb24d049dcd1e7707a22d98e9858f/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  45. ↑ "Конституция Республики Ингушетия (принята 27 февраля 1994 г.)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_ingush/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "Конституция Кабардино-Балкарской Республики от 1 сентября 1997 г. N 28-РЗ (принята Парламентом Кабардино-Балкарской Республики 1 сентября 1997 г.) (в редакции, принятой Конституционным Собранием 12 июля 2006 г., республиканских законов от 28 июля 2001 г. / Глава III Государственное устройство (ст.ст. 67-77)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_kabardin/chapter/3e22e51c74db8e0b182fad67b502e640/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  47. ↑ "Степное Уложение (Конституция) Республики Калмыкия от 5 апреля 1994 г.". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_kalmik/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  48. ↑ "Конституция Республики Хакасия (принята на XVII сессии Верховного Совета Республики Хакасия (первого созыва) 25 мая 1995 года) / Глава III. Статус и административно-территориальное устройство Республики Хакасия (ст.ст. 58 - 71)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_hakas/chapter/daf75cc17d0d1b8b796480bc59f740b8/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  49. ↑ "Конституция Республики Коми от 17 февраля 1994 г. / Глава III. Государственный статус Республики Коми и административно-территориальное устройство (ст.ст. 61 - 70)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_komi/chapter/3e22e51c74db8e0b182fad67b502e640/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  50. ↑ "Mari" (in en). 2019-11-19. https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/mhr/. 
  51. ↑ "Конституция Республики Марий Эл (принята Конституционным Собранием Республики Марий Эл 24 июня 1995 г.) / Глава I. Основы конституционного строя (ст.ст. 1 - 16)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_mariy/chapter/1cafb24d049dcd1e7707a22d98e9858f/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  52. ↑ "Конституция Республики Северная Осетия-Алания (принята Верховным Советом Республики Северная Осетия 12 ноября 1994 г.) / Глава 1. Основы конституционного строя (ст.ст. 1-17)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_osetiya/chapter/53f89421bbdaf741eb2d1ecc4ddb4c33/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  53. ↑ "Конституция Республики Татарстан от 6 ноября 1992 г. / Глава 1. Государственный Совет Республики Татарстан (ст.ст. 67 - 88)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_tatar/chapter/6286affd2f6b921f25baa7f8f76825af/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  54. ↑ "Конституция Республики Тыва (принята Референдумом Республики Тыва 6 мая 2001 г.) / Глава I. Основы конституционного строя (ст.ст.1-17)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_tiva/chapter/f7ee959fd36b5699076b35abf4f52c5c/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  55. ↑ "Конституция Удмуртской Республики от 7 декабря 1994 г. / Глава 1. Основы Конституционного строя (ст.ст. 1 - 15)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_udmurt/chapter/889e0dae931675d48d9f64b3ec2afc12/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  56. ↑ "Конституция (Основной Закон) Республики Саха (Якутия) / Глава 3. Национально-государственный статус, административно-территориальное устройство (ст. 36 - 53)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_saha/chapter/daf75cc17d0d1b8b796480bc59f740b8/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  57. ↑ "Конституция Республики Дагестан (принята Конституционным Собранием 10 июля 2003 г.) / Глава 1. Основы конституционного строя (ст.ст. 1 - 17)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_dagest/chapter/89300effb84a59912210b23abe10a68f/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  58. ↑ "В Дагестане сделают государственными 32 языка". http://www.rg.ru/printable/2014/02/03/reg-skfo/yaziki-anons.html. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  59. ↑ "Конституция Республики Карелия / Глава 1. Основные положения (ст.ст. 1 - 15)". https://constitution.garant.ru/region/cons_karel/chapter/3d3a9e2eb4f30c73ea6671464e2a54b5/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  60. ↑ Закон Республики Карелия «О государственной поддержке карельского, вепсского и финского языков в Республике Карелия»
  61. ↑ Law of the Republic of Bashkortostan "On the languages of the peoples of the Republic of Bashkortostan» № 216-W on February 15, 1999 (as amended up until 2010)) and amendments of 2014(in Russian)
  62. ↑ Gabdrafikov I. The law "On the Languages of the peoples of the Republic of Bashkortostan" is adopted // Бюллетень Сети этнологического мониторинга и раннего предупреждения конфликтов, No. 23, 1999
  63. ↑ Десять лет назад принят Закон "О языках народов Республики Башкортостан" :ru:Башинформ 2009(in Russian)
  64. ↑ "Закон РФ от 25.10.1991 N 1807-I "О языках народов Российской Федерации" (с изменениями и дополнениями) | ГАРАНТ". http://base.garant.ru/10148970/. Retrieved 16 March 2023. 
  65. ↑ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ru) (XLS). RussiaTourism.ru. http://www.russiatourism.ru/data/File/Statistika/2015/Въезд в РФ топ 50 2014.xls.Error:+no+|title=+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=RussiaTourism.ru&rft_id=http://www.russiatourism.ru/data/File/Statistika/2015/%D0%92%D1%8A%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%20%D0%B2%20%D0%A0%D0%A4%20%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%2050%202014.xls&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Social:Languages_of_Russia"> 
  66. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levada2008
  67. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Levada2014
  68. ↑ Yegorov, Oleg (2017-05-25). "Why was French spoken in Russia?". Russia Beyond the Headlines. https://www.rbth.com/politics_and_society/2017/05/25/why-was-french-spoken-in-russia_770185. 
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Percentage of Russian who speak English double to 30
  70. ↑ "Статистическая информация 2014. Общее образование". http://xn--80abucjiibhv9a.xn--p1ai/министерство/статистика/информация-2014/общее-образование-2014. 

Further reading

  • Offord, Derek, Lara Ryazanova-Clarke, Vladislav Rjéoutski, and Gesine Argent. French and Russian in Imperial Russia: Language Use among the Russian Elite. Edinburgh University Press, 2015. Available at JSTOR.

External links

  • Languages of European Russia (Ethnologue)
  • Languages of Asian Russia (Ethnologue)
  • Minority languages of Russia on the Net project, which aims at presenting the languages of Russia to the Web and at facilitating their usage on the Web (most information is in Russian; it provides scientific references on each individual language as well as links to online language descriptions, educational and scientific institutions related to the language, resources on computer-processing of the language and some sites written in this language)
  • Population by mother tongue and districts in 50 Governorates of the European Russia in 1897
  • "The History of the French Language in Russia." University of Bristol



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