Characterization (Materials Science)

Short description: Study of material structure and properties

A micrograph of bronze revealing a cast dendritic structure — The characterization technique optical microscopy showing the micron scale dendritic microstructure of a bronze alloy

Characterization, when used in materials science, refers to the broad and general process by which a material's structure and properties are probed and measured. It is a fundamental process in the field of materials science, without which no scientific understanding of engineering materials could be ascertained.^[1]^[2] The scope of the term often differs; some definitions limit the term's use to techniques which study the microscopic structure and properties of materials,^[2] while others use the term to refer to any materials analysis process including macroscopic techniques such as mechanical testing, thermal analysis and density calculation.^[3] The scale of the structures observed in materials characterization ranges from angstroms, such as in the imaging of individual atoms and chemical bonds, up to centimeters, such as in the imaging of coarse grain structures in metals.

While many characterization techniques have been practiced for centuries, such as basic optical microscopy, new techniques and methodologies are constantly emerging. In particular the advent of the electron microscope and secondary ion mass spectrometry in the 20th century has revolutionized the field, allowing the imaging and analysis of structures and compositions on much smaller scales than was previously possible, leading to a huge increase in the level of understanding as to why different materials show different properties and behaviors.^[4] More recently, atomic force microscopy has further increased the maximum possible resolution for analysis of certain samples in the last 30 years.^[5]

Microscopy

Microscopy is a category of characterization techniques which probe and map the surface and sub-surface structure of a material. These techniques can use photons, electrons, ions or physical cantilever probes to gather data about a sample's structure on a range of length scales. Some common examples of microscopy techniques include:

Optical microscopy
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
Field ion microscopy (FIM)
Scanning probe microscopy (SPM)
- Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
- Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)
X-ray diffraction topography (XRT)

Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy is a category of characterization techniques which use a range of principles to reveal the chemical composition, composition variation, crystal structure and photoelectric properties of materials. Some common examples of spectroscopy techniques include:

Optical radiation

Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-vis)
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
Thermoluminescence (TL)
Photoluminescence (PL)

X-ray

X-ray diffraction (XRD)
Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS)
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX, EDS)
Wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDX, WDS)
Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS)
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
Auger electron spectroscopy (AES)
X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy (XPCS)^[7]

Mass spectrometry

Modes of mass spectrometry:
- Electron ionization (EI)
- Thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TI-MS)
- MALDI-TOF
Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS)

Nuclear spectroscopy

PAC probing the local structure by using radioactive nuclei. From the pattern, electric field gradients are obtained that resolve the structure around the radioactive atom, in order to study phase transitions, defects, diffusion.

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR)
Mössbauer spectroscopy (MBS)
Perturbed angular correlation (PAC)

Other

Photon correlation spectroscopy/Dynamic light scattering (DLS)
Terahertz spectroscopy (THz)
Electron paramagnetic/spin resonance (EPR, ESR)
Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS)
Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS)
Spatially resolved acoustic spectroscopy (SRAS)

Macroscopic testing

A huge range of techniques are used to characterize various macroscopic properties of materials, including:

Mechanical testing, including tensile, compressive, torsional, creep, fatigue, toughness and hardness testing
Differential thermal analysis (DTA)
Dielectric thermal analysis (DEA, DETA)
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
Impulse excitation technique (IET)
Ultrasound techniques, including resonant ultrasound spectroscopy and time domain ultrasonic testing methods^[8]

References

↑ Kumar, Sam Zhang, Lin Li, Ashok (2009). Materials characterization techniques. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1420042948.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 Leng, Yang (2009). Materials Characterization: Introduction to Microscopic and Spectroscopic Methods. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-82299-9.
↑ Zhang, Sam (2008). Materials Characterization Techniques. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1420042948.
↑ Mathys, Daniel, Zentrum für Mikroskopie, University of Basel: Die Entwicklung der Elektronenmikroskopie vom Bild über die Analyse zum Nanolabor, p. 8
↑ Patent US4724318 – Atomic force microscope and method for imaging surfaces with atomic resolution – Google Patents
↑ Brown, Dwayne (October 30, 2012). "NASA Rover's First Soil Studies Help Fingerprint Martian Minerals". NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2012/oct/HQ_12-383_Curiosity_CheMin.html.
↑ "What is X-ray Photon Correlation Spectroscopy (XPCS)?". http://sector7.xray.aps.anl.gov/~dufresne/UofM/xpcs.html.
↑ R. Truell, C. Elbaum and C.B. Chick., Ultrasonic methods in solid state physics New York, Academic Press Inc., 1969.
↑ Ahi, Kiarash; Shahbazmohamadi, Sina; Asadizanjani, Navid (2018). "Quality control and authentication of packaged integrated circuits using enhanced-spatial-resolution terahertz time-domain spectroscopy and imaging". Optics and Lasers in Engineering 104: 274–284. doi:10.1016/j.optlaseng.2017.07.007. Bibcode: 2018OptLE.104..274A. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318712771.

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characterization (materials science). Read more

[1] Kumar, Sam Zhang, Lin Li, Ashok (2009). Materials characterization techniques. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1420042948.

[Leng2009-2] 2.0 ^2.1 Leng, Yang (2009). Materials Characterization: Introduction to Microscopic and Spectroscopic Methods. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-82299-9.

[Materials_Characterization_Techniques-3] Zhang, Sam (2008). Materials Characterization Techniques. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1420042948.

[EM-4] Mathys, Daniel, Zentrum für Mikroskopie, University of Basel: Die Entwicklung der Elektronenmikroskopie vom Bild über die Analyse zum Nanolabor, p. 8

[5] Patent US4724318 – Atomic force microscope and method for imaging surfaces with atomic resolution – Google Patents

[NASA-20121030-6] Brown, Dwayne (October 30, 2012). "NASA Rover's First Soil Studies Help Fingerprint Martian Minerals". NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2012/oct/HQ_12-383_Curiosity_CheMin.html.

[7] "What is X-ray Photon Correlation Spectroscopy (XPCS)?". http://sector7.xray.aps.anl.gov/~dufresne/UofM/xpcs.html.

[8] R. Truell, C. Elbaum and C.B. Chick., Ultrasonic methods in solid state physics New York, Academic Press Inc., 1969.

[9] Ahi, Kiarash; Shahbazmohamadi, Sina; Asadizanjani, Navid (2018). "Quality control and authentication of packaged integrated circuits using enhanced-spatial-resolution terahertz time-domain spectroscopy and imaging". Optics and Lasers in Engineering 104: 274–284. doi:10.1016/j.optlaseng.2017.07.007. Bibcode: 2018OptLE.104..274A. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318712771.

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v t e Spectroscopy
Infrared	FT-IR Raman Resonance Raman Rotational Rotational–vibrational Vibrational Vibrational circular dichroism
UV–Vis–NIR	Ultraviolet–visible Fluorescence Vibronic Near-infrared Resonance enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) Raman optical activity spectroscopy Raman spectroscopy Laser-induced
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Mass m/z Mass spectrum MS software Acronyms
Ion source	AMS APCI APLI CI DAPPI DART DESI DIOS EESI EI ESI FAB FD GD IA ICP LAESI MALDI MALDESI MIP PTR SESI SIMS SS SSI SELDI TI TS
Mass analyzer	Sector Wien filter Time-of-flight Quadrupole mass filter Quadrupole ion trap Penning trap FT-ICR Orbitrap
Detector	Electron multiplier Microchannel plate detector Daly detector Faraday cup Langmuir–Taylor detector
MS combination	MS/MS QqQ Hybrid MS GC/MS LC/MS IMS/MS CE-MS
Fragmentation	BIRD CID ECD EDD ETD HCD IRMPD NETD SID
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